3D Printing of Foods

C. Anandharamakrishnan, National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and Management - Thanjavur (an Institute of National Importance; formerly Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology - IIFPT), Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Government of India, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India. Jeyan A. Moses, National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and Management - Thanjavur (an Institute of National Importance; formerly Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology - IIFPT), Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Government of India, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India. T. Anukiruthika, National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and Management - Thanjavur (an Institute of National Importance; formerly Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology - IIFPT), Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Government of India, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.

• Preface xiv1 Introduction to 3D Printing Technology 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Digital Manufacturing: From Rapid Prototyping to Rapid Manufacturing 31.3 Milestones in 3D Printing Technology 41.4 Different Historical Eras in 3D Printing 51.4.1 Ancient Age 51.4.2 Middle Age 51.4.3 Modern Age 51.5 Prospects of 3D Food Printing 61.6 Design Considerations of 3D Printer 71.6.1 Printer Configurations 71.6.2 Components of a Typical 3D Printer 101.6.2.1 Enclosure, Build Plate, and Guide Rails 101.6.2.2 Mechanical Drive Systems 121.6.2.3 Microprocessor Controlling System 121.7 Software Requirements and Hardware Integration 131.8 Designing, Digital Imaging, and Modelling 161.8.1 Image Acquisition, Processing, and Modelling 161.8.2 Repairing and Post-Processing 201.9 Food Printing Platforms 211.9.1 Universal Platform 211.9.2 User-Defined Platform 211.9.3 Applicability of User Interface Systems 231.10 Comparison Between Food 3D Printing and Robotic Food Manufacturing 231.11 Conclusion 24References 242 3D Printing Approaches 282.1 Introduction 292.2 Additive Manufacturing 302.3 3D Food Printing Technologies 332.4 Extrusion-Based Printing 352.4.1 Working Principle, System Components, and Process Variables 352.4.2 Classification of the Extrusion-Based 3D Printing System 392.4.2.1 Hot-Melt Extrusion 392.4.2.2 Cold Extrusion 412.4.2.3 Hydrogel-Forming Extrusion 422.5 Selective Sintering 442.5.1 Working Principle, System Components, and Process Variables 452.5.2 Classification of Selective Sintering System 462.5.2.1 Selective Laser Sintering 462.5.2.2 Selective Hot Air Sintering and Melting 472.6 Inkjet Printing 472.6.1 Working Principle, System Components, and Process Variables 482.6.2 Classification of Inkjet Printing 492.6.2.1 Drop-On-Demand Inkjet Printing 492.6.2.2 Continuous Inkjet Printing 502.7 Binder Jetting 502.7.1 Working Principle, System Components, and Process Variables 512.7.2 Classification of Binder Jetting 522.8 Bio-Printing 532.8.1 Working Principle, System Components, and Process Variables 542.8.2 Classification of Bioprinting 552.8.2.1 Extrusion-Based Bioprinting 552.8.2.2 Droplet-Based Bioprinting 562.8.2.3 Photocuring-Based Bioprinting 572.9 Future Prospects and Challenges 572.10 Conclusion 58References 593 Food Components and Their Role in Printability 673.1 Recipes in ‘Print and Eat Technology’ 673.2 Role of Food Constituents 683.3 Panorama of Food Printing 683.4 Insights on the Printability of Different Food Constituents 693.4.1 Carbohydrates and Starch 693.4.2 Proteins and Amino Acids 713.4.3 Lipids and Fatty Acids 733.4.4 Dietary Fibre 753.4.5 Other Additives 773.5 Classification of Foods Based on Their Printability 793.6 Conclusion 79References 804 Factors Affecting the Printability of Foods 834.1 Introduction 844.2 Factors That Affect Extrusion 3D Printing 854.3 Intrinsic Properties 854.3.1 Physical Properties 854.3.2 Rheological Properties 884.3.2.1 Steady Shear Rheology 894.3.2.2 Dynamic Shear Rheology 924.3.2.3 Yield Stress 954.3.2.4 Complex Viscosity 974.3.2.5 Thixotropy and Creep Recovery 984.3.2.6 Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of Rheology 1004.3.3 Mechanical Properties 1014.3.3.1 Extrusion Assay 1014.3.3.2 Textural Profile Analysis 1024.3.4 Frictional Properties 1054.3.5 Thermal Properties 1074.3.6 Dielectric Properties 1094.4 Extrinsic Properties 1114.4.1 Optimization of Material Supply 1114.4.2 Optimization of 3D Printing Process Variables 1134.4.2.1 Nozzle Size and Nozzle Height 1134.4.2.2 Printing Speed 1154.4.2.3 Extrusion Rate 1164.4.2.4 Printing Rate 1184.4.2.5 Infill Percentage and Infill Pattern 1214.4.2.6 Extruder Offset and Retraction Length 1234.5 Factors Affecting Other 3D Printing Technologies 1264.5.1 Selective Laser Sintering 1264.5.2 Inkjet Printing and Binder Jetting 1274.6 Conclusion 129References 1305 Printability and Techniques 1385.1 Introduction 1395.2 Printability and Material Characteristics 1405.3 Material Characterization Techniques 1415.3.1 Structural Imaging 1425.3.1.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 1425.3.1.2 X-ray Microtomography 1455.3.1.3 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy 1495.3.2 Crystal Morphology 1535.3.2.1 X-ray Diffraction 1535.3.2.2 Small-Angle X-ray Scattering 1565.3.3 Molecular and Chemical Analysis 1595.3.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1595.3.3.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 1625.3.4 Thermal Analysis 1645.3.4.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 1645.4 Assessment of Printability 1665.4.1 Line Test 1665.4.2 Lattice Test 1685.4.3 Cylinder Test 1685.4.4 Extrusion Test 1685.4.5 Assessment of the Dimensional Stability 1705.4.6 Assessment of the Handling Properties 1765.5 Printability Evaluation of 3D Printed Constructs 1765.5.1 Shape Resemblance 1765.5.2 Printing Percentage 1775.5.3 Dimensional Deviation and Appearance 1775.5.4 Dimensional Stability 1795.5.5 Ternary Representation of Printability 1795.5.6 Correlation of Printability and Rheology 1795.5.7 Rational Approach for Printability 1815.6 Conclusion 182References 1826 Natively Printable Foods 1906.1 Introduction 1906.2 Natively Printable Materials as Basic Food 3D Printing Formulations 1916.3 Printability: Concepts and Underlying Mechanisms 1926.4 Types of Natively Printable Materials 1946.4.1 Cereal-Based Material Supplies 1956.4.2 Sugar-Based Material Supplies 2066.4.3 Gel-Based Food Systems 2096.5 Insights and Scope for Commercialization 2146.6 Concluding Remarks 215References 2157 Pre-Processing of Non-Printable Foods 2217.1 Introduction 2217.2 Natively Non-Printable Materials 2227.2.1 Traditional Foods: What Makes Them ‘Non-Printable’? 2237.2.2 Role of Food Hydrocolloids in Improving Printability 2247.2.3 Role of Other Additives 2297.3 Pre-Processing and Formulations for 3D Printing 2307.3.1 Plant-Based Cellular Foods 2307.3.2 Animal-Based Cellular Foods 2357.4 Post-Printing Stability of the Printed 3D Constructs 2377.5 Scope of Non-Printable Materials for 3D Printing Applications 2397.6 Conclusion 240References 2418 Alternative Ingredients Used in Food Printing 2478.1 Introduction 2478.2 Alternative Food Sources and the Sustainability Perspective 2488.3 Rationale of Alternative Material Supplies 2508.4 Innovative Food Sources 2528.4.1 Uncommon Food Sources 2528.4.2 Unexplored Food Sources 2548.4.3 Under-Utilized Food Sources 2558.5 3D Printing of Alternative Ingredients 2568.5.1 Insects as Food 2578.5.2 Microorganisms as Food 2588.5.3 By-products of Fruits and Vegetables Processing 2608.5.4 Others 2618.6 Future Trends and Perspectives 2638.7 Challenges and Limitations 2638.8 Conclusion 264References 2659 Post-Processing of 3D Printed Foods 2739.1 Introduction 2739.2 Material Supply Requirements for Food 3D Printing 2749.3 Post-Processing Methods 2779.3.1 Drying 2779.3.2 Frying 2799.3.3 Baking 2809.3.4 Microwave Cooking 2829.3.5 Sous Vide Cooking 2859.3.6 Low-Temperature Processing 2869.3.7 Other Post-Processing Methods 2869.4 Novel Post-Processing Methods 2899.5 Assessment of Post-Processing Characteristics 2939.6 Sensorial Characterization 2979.6.1 Qualitative Analyses 2979.6.2 Quantitative Analyses 3009.7 Requisites, Challenges, and Future Trends 3019.8 Conclusion 303References 30410 4D Printing Technology 31010.1 Introduction 31110.2 4D Printing: Concept and Functionality 31210.3 Smart Materials for 4D Printing 31610.3.1 Shape Memory Alloys 31610.3.2 Shape Memory Polymers 31710.3.3 Shape Memory Composites 31810.4 Mechanism of Shape Memory Polymers 31910.5 Shape Memory Effect in 4D Printing 31910.5.1 One-Way SME 32110.5.2 Two-Way SME 32210.5.3 Three-Way SME 32210.6 Stimuli-Responsive Systems 32310.6.1 Thermo-Responsive 32310.6.2 Moisture-Responsive 32310.6.3 Photo-Responsive 32410.6.4 Electro-Responsive 32410.6.5 Magneto-Responsive 32410.7 Programming Strategies 32510.7.1 Bending Strategy 32610.7.1.1 Multilayer Approach 32610.7.1.2 Material Gradients 32910.7.1.3 Localized Activation 33010.7.2 Buckling Strategy 33110.7.2.1 Material Tessellation 33110.7.2.2 In-Plane Material Gradients 33210.7.2.3 Non-Homogenous Exposure 33210.7.2.4 Mechanically Induced Buckling 33310.7.3 Sequential Shape-Shifting 33310.8 Spontaneous Transformation in Foods 33410.9 Recent Advancements in 4D Food Printing 33610.9.1 pH-Triggered Colour Transformation 33610.9.2 Dehydration-Triggered Colour and Flavour Transformation 33910.9.3 Dehydration-Triggered Shape Transformation 34310.9.4 Temperature-Triggered Shape Transformation 34510.10 Future Trends and Challenges 34510.11 Conclusion 347References 34811 Applications of Food 3D Printing Technology 35511.1 Introduction 35511.2 Applications of 3D Food Printing 35811.2.1 Food Customization 35811.2.2 Personalized Foods and Digitalized Nutrition Control 36111.2.3 Delivery of Specific Foods with Unique Functionality 36411.2.4 Food Model Prototyping 36611.2.5 Sustainable Approach for Conversion of Waste into Wealth 36711.2.6 Food Packaging Designs 37011.3 Future Outlook of 3D Food Printing 37211.3.1 Healthy Dietary Practice 37211.3.2 Complementing Existing Food Processing Practices 37311.3.3 Kitchens with Food 3D Printers? 37511.4 Conclusion 376References 37712 Integrating Encapsulation Technique with 3D Food Printing 38412.1 Introduction 38412.2 Integration of 3D Printing and Encapsulation 38612.2.1 Encapsulation Followed by 3D Printing 38812.2.2 Simultaneous Encapsulation and 3D Printing 39212.3 Structure Modified Delivery Systems 39412.3.1 Micro and Nano Emulsions 39512.3.2 Lipid-Based Delivery Systems 39612.3.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 39712.3.4 Nanoliposomes 39812.3.5 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers 39912.4 Techniques and Methods for Micro and Nanoencapsulation 40012.4.1 Polymer-Lipid Based Encapsulation Techniques 40112.4.1.1 Nanoprecipitation 40112.4.1.2 Emulsification-Solvent Evaporation 40112.4.1.3 Inclusion Complexation 40212.4.1.4 Coacervation 40412.4.1.5 Supercritical Fluid Technique 40512.4.1.6 Fluid Bed Coating 40612.4.2 Drying Techniques for Micro and Nanoencapsulation 40812.4.2.1 Spray Drying 40912.4.2.2 Freeze-Drying 41512.4.2.3 Spray-Freeze-Drying 41712.4.2.4 Conductive-Hydro Drying 42012.5 Future Outlook and Prospects of Synergistic Approaches 42212.6 Barriers and Research Constraints 42412.7 Conclusion 426References 42613 Integrating Electrohydrodynamic Processes with Food 3D Printing 43513.1 Introduction 43513.2 Encapsulation Techniques Involving Electrohydrodynamic Process 43613.2.1 System Components and Process Parameters 43713.2.2 Encapsulation via Electrospraying 44013.2.3 Encapsulation via Electrospinning 44213.3 Applications in the Food Industry 44513.3.1 Encapsulation of Bioactives and Probiotics 44513.3.2 Enzyme Immobilization 44813.3.3 Functional Food Packages 45113.3.4 Food Coatings 45413.4 Integrating 3D Printing with Electrospraying/ Electrospinning 45813.5 Future Perspectives and Challenges 46113.6 Conclusion 462References 46314 Globalization of Printed Foods and Consumer Perception to 3D Printed Foods 46814.1 Introduction 46814.2 Circular Economy in Food Printing 47014.3 Globalization of Food 3D Printing Technology 47114.4 New Horizons of 3D Food Printing 47314.4.1 Strategic Market Foresight 47414.4.2 Strategic Shifts and Economic Paradigms 47514.4.3 Decentralization and Localization of Production 47614.4.4 Role of Industry 4.0 47714.5 3D Food Printing – A Classic Disruptive Technology 47914.5.1 Food Choice and Consumer Behaviour 47914.5.2 On Production Patterns 48114.5.3 Sustainability and Value Addition 48214.5.4 Anti-Counterfeiting and Food Authentication 48314.6 Technological Barriers and Challenges 48514.7 Conclusion 486References 48715 Food Industry Market Trends and Consumer Preferences 49315.1 Introduction 49415.2 Food Service Market: Consumption to Prosumption 49515.3 Food Decisions and Consumer Attitude 49715.3.1 Food Neophobia vs Food Neophilia 49815.3.2 Food Choice Motives 50015.3.3 Sensorial and Sustainable Claims 50115.4 Approaches and Methods to Assess Consumer Perception 50315.4.1 Theoretical Approaches 50415.4.1.1 Quantitative Methods 50415.4.1.2 Means-end Chain Theory 50415.4.1.3 Social Science Models 50515.4.1.4 Economic Models 50515.4.2 Experimental Approaches 50515.4.2.1 Surveys 50515.4.2.2 Conjoint Analysis and Choice-Based Conjoint Analysis 50615.4.2.3 Heuristics 50615.5 Consumer’s Acceptance of Novel Foods 50615.5.1 Genetically Modified Foods and 3D Printing 50815.5.2 Food Irradiation and 3D Printing 50815.5.3 Nanotechnology and 3D Printing 51015.5.4 Stem Cell Technology and 3D Printing 51115.5.4.1 In-Vitro Cultured Meat and 3D Printing 51115.5.5 Miscellaneous Technologies 51115.5.5.1 Alternative Proteins and 3D Printing 51115.5.5.2 Meat Analogues and 3D Printing 51215.5.6 Presumption and Outcomes of Novel Food Technologies 51315.6 Intervention Tools for Enhancing Consumer Knowledge 51315.6.1 Business Schemes and Public Policies 51415.6.2 Social Media and Communication 51415.6.3 Academia and Scientific Events 51515.6.4 Internet and e-commerce 51515.7 Trends, Advancements, and Future Directions 51615.8 Conclusion 518References 51916 Safety, Challenges, and Research Needs 52516.1 Introduction 52516.2 Implications of Food Printing 52716.3 Applicability and Storability 53216.4 Food Safety Considerations 53316.4.1 Process and Product Safety 53416.4.1.1 Nature of Raw Materials 53416.4.1.2 Processing and Design Factors 53516.4.1.3 Finished Product Safety 53616.4.1.4 Working Premises and Personnel Safety 53616.4.2 Acceptance of 3D Printed Foods 53716.4.2.1 Food Poisoning, Food Allergy, and Cross-Contamination 53816.4.2.2 Long-Term Health Effects and Illness 53916.5 Legal Framework and Regulations 53916.5.1 Packed 3D Printed Foods for Mass Population 54116.5.2 Unpacked 3D Printed Foods at Restaurants and Domestic Kitchen 54316.6 Challenges and Research Needs 54316.7 Conclusion 544References 544Index 549