Organic Meat Production and Processing

Steven C. Ricke, Professor and Wray Endowed Chair in Food Safety and Director of the Center for Food Safety, Food Science Department, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA Ellen J. Van Loo, Doctoral Researcher, Department of Agricultural Economics, Ghent University, Ghent, BelgiumMichael G. Johnson, Emeritus Professor, Food Microbiology & Safety, Food Science Department, Division of Agriculture, University of ArkansasCorliss A. O’Bryan, Post Doctoral Research Associate, Food Science Department, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkansas

• List of Contributors xv 1 Historical and Current Perspectives on Organic Meat Production 1Ellen J. Van Loo, Steven C. Ricke, Corliss A. O’Bryan, and Michael G. Johnson1.1 What is organic – definition 11.2 History and development of the modern organic food industry 11.3 Organic food labels 31.4 Organic meat and objectives of this book 8Acknowledgment 8References 8SECTION I: ECONOMICS, MARKET, AND REGULATORY ISSUES 112 Organic Meat Operations in the United States 13Corliss A. O’Bryan, Ellen J. Van Loo, Steven C. Ricke, and Philip G. Crandall2.1 Introduction 132.2 The market for organic meat in the United States 142.3 Production and supply of organic meat in the United States 142.4 Future of the US organic meat industry 20References 203 Regulatory Issues in Domestically Raised and Imported Organic Meats in the United States 23Harrison M. Pittman, Kerri C. Boling, and Shannon J. Mirus3.1 Introduction 233.2 The national organic program 243.3 Future directions and conclusions 50References 514 Organic Meat Production in Europe: Market and Regulation 53Simona Naspetti and Raffaele Zanoli4.1 Introduction 534.2 The regulatory framework 534.3 Organic animal production: salient features of the new EU regulation 554.4 Characteristics of the organic meat industry 564.5 Consumer issues 614.6 Conclusions 65References 665 Organic Meat Marketing 67Ellen J. Van Loo, Vincenzina Caputo, Rodolfo M. Nayga, Jr., Maurizio Canavari, and Steven C. Ricke5.1 Introduction 675.2 Consumers’ purchasing drivers and deterrents 675.3 Economics and price premium 755.4 An analysis across organic buyer types and sociodemographic dimensions 785.5 Conclusions 80Acknowledgment 81References 81SECTION II: MANAGEMENT ISSUES FOR ORGANICALLY RAISED AND PROCESSED MEAT ANIMALS 876 Health and Welfare of Organic Livestock and Its Challenges 89Albert Sundrum6.1 Introduction 896.2 Characteristics of organic livestock farming 906.3 Implications of living conditions on animal health and welfare 916.4 Heterogeneity of living conditions between organic farms 966.5 Status of animal health and welfare in organic farming 976.6 Different perspectives 986.7 Inconsistencies and cognitive dissonances 1026.8 Challenges 1056.9 New approach 107References 1087 Environmental Impacts and Life Cycle Analysis of Organic Meat Production and Processing 113Cesare Castellini, Antonio Boggia, Luisa Paolotti, Greg J. Thoma, and Dae-soo Kim7.1 Organic meat and environmental impacts 1137.2 The life cycle assessment method 1147.3 Case study–environmental impact evaluation of poultry production systems, by means of LCA: comparison among conventional, organic, and organic-plus 1197.4 Case study–national scan-level carbon footprint for US swine production 1287.5 Conclusions 134References 1348 Genetics of Poultry Meat Production in Organic Systems 137Poul Sørensen8.1 Introduction 1378.2 The growth 1398.3 Adaptation to outdoor facilities 1408.4 Concentration and/or quality of nutrients fed to the organically grown chicken 1418.5 The parent stock should be organically kept – perhaps? 1428.6 Where to buy genetic material, or is it necessary to breed for organically grown chickens? 1428.7 Dual purpose or specialised breeds 1438.8 Conclusion 143References 1449 Organic Meat By-Products for Affiliated Food Industries 147Claudia S. Dunkley, Dave Carter, and Kingsley Dunkley9.1 Introduction 1479.2 Meat by-products 1489.3 Marketing organic by-products 1509.4 Current regulations regarding the pet-food industry 1519.5 Organic product and by-product use in the pet-food industry 1529.6 Where do we go from here? 1549.7 Other uses of organic by-products 1549.8 Conclusions 155References 15510 Organic Animal Nutrition and Feed Supplementations 157Vesela I. Chalova and Steven C. Ricke10.1 Introduction 15710.2 Organic animal nutrition: general considerations 15810.3 Proteins 16010.4 Mineral and vitamin supplementations 16710.5 Conclusions and perspectives 169Acknowledgment 169References 16911 Production of Forage Crops Suitable for Feeding Organically Raised Meat Animals 177Ivan Manolov and Christina Yancheva11.1 Introduction 17711.2 Crop rotations 17811.3 Intercropping 18011.4 Green manure and cover crops 18011.5 Undersowing 18111.6 Weed management 18211.7 Soil fertility 18311.8 Cereal crops 18511.9 Fodder crops 18611.10 Pastures 19011.11 Conclusion 192References 192SECTION III: PROCESSING, SENSORY, AND HUMAN HEALTH ASPECTS OF ORGANIC MEATS 19912 Slaughter Options for Organic Meat Producers in the United States 201Corliss A. O’Bryan, Kristen E. Gibson, Philip G. Crandall, and Steven C. Ricke12.1 Introduction 20112.2 Fixed facilities 20112.3 Mobile slaughter units 20312.4 On-farm poultry processing 20512.5 Waste management 20612.6 Conclusions 208Acknowledgment 208References 208List of resources 20813 Alternatives to Traditional Antimicrobials for Organically Processed Meat and Poultry 211T. Matthew Taylor, Rolf Joerger, Enrique Palou, Aurelio López-Malo, Rául Avila-Sosa, and Thelma Calix-Lara13.1 Introduction 21113.2 Weak organic acids and associated salts 21413.3 Chlorine and the oxidizing antimicrobials 22113.4 Antimicrobial polypeptides and biopreservation 22513.5 Concluding remarks 229References 23014 Nutritional Value of Organic Meat and Potential Human Health Response 239Ewa Rembiałkowska and Maciej Badowski14.1 Introduction 23914.2 Beef 24214.3 Mutton and lamb 24314.4 Pork 24414.5 Poultry 24714.6 Rabbit meat 24714.7 Summary 249References 25215 Sensory Assessment of Organic Meats 257Lydia J. Rice and Jean-François Meullenet15.1 Introduction 25715.2 Types of sensory testing 25815.3 Sensory research on organic meat 26315.4 Conclusions 269References 270Appendix A Minimum number of assessment in a triangle test 273Appendix B Critical number of correct response in a triangle test (entries are xa,n) 27416 Chemical Residues in Organic Meats Compared to Conventional Meats 275Sergio Ghidini, Emanuela Zanardi, Mauro Conter, and Adriana Ianieri16.1 Introduction 27516.2 Inorganic residues and contaminants 27616.3 Organic residues and contaminants 27916.4 Pesticides 28016.5 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 28016.6 Veterinary drugs 28116.7 Conclusions 282References 283SECTION IV: THE CURRENT FOOD SAFETY STATUS OF ORGANIC MEATS 28517 Prevalence of Food-Borne Pathogens in Organic Beef 287Megan E. Jacob, J. Trent Fox, and T. G. Nagaraja17.1 Introduction 28717.2 E. coli O157 and non-O157 STEC 29017.3 Salmonella 29217.4 Campylobacter 29317.5 Listeria monocytogenes 29417.6 Conclusions 294References 29618 Incidence of Food-Borne Pathogens in Organic Swine 301Marcos H. Rostagno and Paul D. Ebner18.1 Introduction 30118.2 Incidence of bacterial food-borne pathogens 30318.3 Antimicrobial resistance in conventional versus organic pork production 30518.4 Incidence of parasites 30818.5 Conclusions 309References 31019 Food-borne Pathogen Occurrence in Organically and Naturally Raised Poultry 315Ellen J. Van Loo, Sherry N. Melendez, Irene B. Hanning, and Steven C. Ricke19.1 Introduction 31519.2 Broiler production in the United States 31619.3 Prevalence of food-borne pathogens in pasture and organically raised poultry 31819.4 Antibiotic resistance 32119.5 Conclusions 324Acknowledgment 324References 324SECTION V: PREHARVEST CONTROL MEASURES FOR ASSURING THE SAFETY OF ORGANIC MEATS 32920 Probiotics as Pathogen Control Agents for Organic Meat Production 331Gregory R. Siragusa and Steven C. Ricke20.1 Introduction 33120.2 Antibiotics in food animal production 33220.3 Development of probiotics 33320.4 Probiotics and the GI tract 33420.5 Probiotics and mechanisms of protection 33620.6 Company-specific inoculant 34020.7 Conclusions 341Acknowledgment 342References 34321 Gut Health and Organic Acids, Antimicrobial Peptides, and Botanicals as Natural Feed Additives 351Jacqueline Jacob and Anthony Pescatore21.1 Introduction 35121.2 Gut health and microbial population 35321.3 Organic acids 35521.4 Antimicrobial peptides 35921.5 Phytogenic compounds/botanicals 36221.6 Conclusions 369References 37022 Prebiotics 379Jacqueline Jacob and Anthony Pescatore22.1 Introduction 37922.2 Fructo-oligosaccharides 38322.3 Mannanoligosaccharides (MOS) 38422.4 Other oligosaccharides 38922.5 Inulin 39022.6 Combinations of feed additives 39222.7 Conclusions 399References 39923 Bacteriophages for Potential Food Safety Applications in Organic Meat Production 407Steven C. Ricke, Paul Hererra, and Debabrata Biswas23.1 Introduction 40723.2 Bacteriophage biology 40823.3 Postharvest application of bacteriophage in meat processing 40923.4 Preharvest phage therapy 41123.5 Bacteriophage and animal host response 41223.6 Overcoming barriers to bacteriophage GI tract therapy 41423.7 Optimizing phage sources for therapeutic application 41723.8 Conclusions 418Acknowledgment 419References 41924 The Future of Organic Meats 425Ellen J. Van Loo, Steven C. Ricke, Corliss A. O’Bryan, and Michael G. Johnson24.1 Synopsis of the different sections 42524.2 Future of the organic meat industry 427Acknowledgment 429References 429Index 431