Ocean in the Earth System

André Monaco is Emeritus Director of Research for the French national research center (CNRS). His research interests concern marine sedimentology and geochemistry. He was responsible for part of the organizing committee for several French and European programs and has been guest editor for four special issues in international journals.Patrick Prouzet is Director of Research focusing on the ecosystemic approach at Ifremer in France. He specializes in the biology and dynamics of anadromous fish such as Atlantic salmon and eels. He is the author or co-author of several works on these species or on estuary fishing.

• FOREWORD xiCHAPTER 1. THE OCEAN IN THE EARTH SYSTEM: EVOLUTION AND REGULATION 1Philippe BERTRAND1.1. The Earth system and its components 11.1.1. A system is a set of objects whose limit is arbitrary, but pertinent 11.1.2. One system is necessarily built into another 31.1.3. The Earth is a “closed” system  41.1.4. The major components of the Earth system 71.1.5. What is the biosphere? 81.2. The ocean, from its origins 91.2.1. Was there an ocean 4.4 billion years ago?  91.2.2. The origin of water on Earth (4.5 – 4 billion years ago)   91.2.3. The ocean and the end of the “Venus” phase of the Earth’s history (between 4.5 and 4 billion years ago)   101.2.4. Why are there oceans on Earth and a “Venus inferno” on Venus? 131.2.5. The ocean, cradle of the first living creatures (between 4.4 and 3.5 billion years ago) 161.3. The ocean, oxygen and the evolution of life forms 181.3.1. The essential characteristics had been selected in the ocean before the Cambrian period, over 540 million years ago 181.3.2. How did oxygen accumulate?  211.3.3. The first important accumulation of oxygen (around 2.5 billion years ago) 251.3.4. A moderate increase in oxygenation (between 2.5 and 0.5 billion years ago) 261.3.5. The second important accumulation of oxygen (between 500 and 350 million years ago) 271.4. The regulation of the greenhouse effect by the ocean 291.4.1. There is no life without a minimum greenhouse effect 291.4.2. The regulation of the greenhouse effect by the ocean 301.5. Oceanic photosynthesis regulates itself on a short timescale 361.5.1. When the ocean is deficient in nitrate  381.5.2. When the ocean has an excess of nitrate  401.5.3. The regulation of the N/P ratio  411.6. Conclusion 431.6.1. The ocean in the Earth system  431.6.2. The anthropogenic disturbance of the Earth system   451.6.3. And life among all that? 471.7. Acknowledgments 491.8. Bibliography  49CHAPTER 2. THE OCEAN AND THE CLIMATE SYSTEM 55Pascale DELECLUSE2.1. Introduction 552.2. Climate change 552.2.1. The report on the findings   562.2.2. Interpretation of the observed changes 582.2.3. The Earth’s radiative equilibrium and greenhouse gases 592.2.4. The role of greenhouse gases – GHG602.2.5. Scenarios and projections 632.3. Physics and dynamics  672.3.1. Rotation, Coriolis, geostropy  692.3.2. An ocean moved by the wind  712.3.3. Ekman, spiral, transport, pumping, upwelling and downwelling 712.3.4. Interior ocean and western boundary currents 772.3.5. An ocean moved by thermohaline fluxes  802.3.6. Stratification, mixed layer, thermocline  822.3.7. Formation of water masses, convection and subduction  832.3.8. Schematization of global circulation: the great conveyor belt   852.4. Some key elements for understanding the ocean’s role in the climate  882.4.1. Typical times   882.4.2. Ocean–atmosphere in the tropics 902.4.3. Other types of variability 952.4.4. Climatic surprises  972.5. Some questions for the future 1002.6. Bibliography 102CHAPTER 3. OCEAN–ATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONS  105Laurence EYMARD and Gilles REVERDIN3.1. Introduction: what are ocean–atmosphere interactions?  1053.2. Interface processes and their role in the coupled system   1063.2.1. Radiative fluxes  1073.2.2. Turbulent fluxes  1093.2.3. Water exchanges between the ocean and atmosphere  1153.2.4. Other exchanges of matter   1183.2.5. Flux measurement  1253.3. Examples of energy exchanges   1293.3.1. Tropical cyclones  1293.3.2. Surface temperature fronts   1323.3.3. The interactions close to strong oceanic fronts 1343.3.4. Marginal ice zones and associated air–sea fluxes 1373.3.5. The example of the impact of the iron supply from Saharan aerosols 1403.4. Conclusion 1423.5. Bibliography 143CHAPTER 4. MARINE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES  145Louis LEGENDRE4.1. Introduction: geochemistry, biogeochemistry and marine biogeochemistry 1454.1.1. Geochemistry and cosmochemistry 1454.1.2. Biogeochemistry and marine biogeochemistry 1474.2. A fundamental characteristic of the Earth’s system: biogeochemical cycles  1494.3. Carbon: at the heart of living matter  1524.3.1. Carbon in large natural reservoirs 1534.3.2. Biogeochemical cycles of carbon 1564.4. Oxygen: a poison that Earth cannot do without 1664.4.1. The Great Oxygenation Event  1684.4.2. Biogeochemical cycles of oxygen 1694.5. Nitrogen: a chemical element over which countries have fought in the past 1744.5.1. Nitrogen, abundant but difficult to access  1744.5.2. Biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen 1764.6. Phosphorus: a chemical element over which countries may fight in future 1824.6.1. Phosphorus, not very abundant or exploitable 1824.6.2. Biogeochemical cycles of phosphorus 1824.7. Biogeochemical equilibria and human societies: problems    1854.8. Bibliography  186CHAPTER 5. OCEAN ACIDIFICATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES   189Jean-Pierre GATTUSO, Lina HANSSON and Frédéric GAZEAU5.1. Introduction 1895.1.1. What is ocean acidification?  1905.1.2. A brief history of research on the acidification of oceans  1935.1.3. Main research programs  1975.2. Observations 1975.2.1. Past changes   1975.2.2. Recent changes 1995.3. Projections 2015.4. Impacts of ocean acidification   2045.4.1. Impacts on organisms and communities  2045.4.2. Impacts on biogeochemical cycles 2195.4.3. Economy and society 2215.5. What are the solutions? 2255.5.1. The reduction of CO2 emissions  2265.5.2. Geoengineering techniques   2275.5.3. Adaptation measures 2285.6. Conclusion 2295.7. Acknowledgments 2315.8. Appendix 2315.8.1. Carbonate chemistry of carbonates and biogeochemical processes 2315.9. Bibliography 233LIST OF AUTHORS 255INDEX  257

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