Handbook of Energy Materials in Supercapacitors and Storage Devices

C. Sarathchandran, PhD is an assistant professor in the Department of Science, Amrita School of Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. His doctoral thesis centered around the development of epoxy resin poly- (trimethylene terephthalate) based blend systems for aerospace applications. His research interests include the development of supercapacitors, batteries, and aerogels for various applications. S. A. Ilangovan, PhD is the Deputy Director at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Center, Trivandrum, Kerala, India, with more than 20 years of research experience in supercapacitors and batteries. He has published more than 20 research articles, ten patents, and one book. Sabu Thomas, PhD is the former Vice-Chancellor at Mahatma Gandhi University, and currently at the International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India, as well as the Department of Physics and Electronics, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. He has published more than 80 books, 750 research articles, and several patents.

• Preface xv1 Introduction to Supercapacitors 1Shebin Stephen, S. A. Ilangovan, Sujatha S., Bibin John, Ajeesh K. S. and C. Sarathchandran1.1 Introduction 11.2 Conclusion 81.3 Acknowledgement 8References 82 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors 11Phuoc Anh Le2.1 Introduction to Electric Double-Layer Supercapacitors 112.2 General Principles and Related Theories 122.3 Designing of Electric Double-Layer-Based Supercapacitors 152.3.1 Current Collector 162.3.2 Electrodes 172.3.3 Electrolyte 172.3.4 Separator 172.4 Applications 172.4.1 Power Electronics Systems 182.4.2 Vehicles 182.4.3 Renewable Energy 182.5 Recent Developments 182.5.1 Carbon-Based Electrode for EDLCs 192.5.2 Other Carbon Materials 232.6 Conclusions 24References 253 Electrochemical Supercapacitors Based on Pseudocapacitance 35Renu Dhahiya, Dinesh, Mukul Gupta, Parasmani Rajput, Pankaj Sharma and Ashok Kumar3.1 Introduction 363.2 Theory of Pseudocapacitance 373.3 Design and Fabrication of Pseudocapacitors 393.3.1 Transition Metal Oxides Intercalation 403.3.2 Nanostructuring to Achieve Pseudocapacitance 413.3.3 MXenes 433.3.4 Carbon-Based Material 433.4 Self-Discharge and Potential Recovery in Pseudocapacitors 433.4.1 Methods for Reducing Self-Discharge and Potential Recovery 443.4.2 Tuning the Separator 463.4.3 Modulating the Electrolyte 463.5 Recent Advances in Pseudocapacitors 473.5.1 Transition Metal Oxide-Based Pseudocapacitor 473.5.2 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDCs)-Based Pseudocapacitance 483.5.3 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)-Based Pseudocapacitance 493.5.4 MXenes-Based Pseudocapacitance 493.5.5 Material Design Strategies for Pseudocapacitance 503.6 Application 533.6.1 Automobiles and Transport 543.6.2 Defense and Military 543.6.3 Computers and Memory Backup Chips 543.6.4 Medical and Industry 543.7 Future Trends 55Acknowledgments 56References 564 Porous Carbon-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 65Deeksha Nagpal, Anup Singh, Ajay Vasishth, Subha Pratihar, Ashok Kumar and Shyam Sundar Pattnaik4.1 Introduction 664.2 Mechanism of Charge Storage in Carbon-Based Materials 674.2.1 Charge Storage in Porous Carbon 694.3 Self-Discharge and Potential Decay in Carbon‐Based Materials 704.3.1 Distinctive Self-Discharge Methods 724.4 Carbon-Derived from Various Sources and their Performance Evaluations 744.4.1 Performance Evaluation of Carbon Derived Biomass Waste 744.4.2 Carbon Derived from Other Industrial Waste 774.4.3 Tire Waste 774.5 Recent Trends and Future Applications of Carbon-Based Material for Supercapacitors 784.5.1 Template Carbon Gel 784.5.2 Carbon-Based Materials and Its Composites 79References 805 Porous Activated Carbon-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 91Surendra K. Martha, Sadananda Muduli and Tapan K. Pani5.1 Introduction 925.2 Charge Storage Mechanism in Porous Carbon-Based Supercapacitors 935.3 Self-Discharge and Potential Decay in Carbon‐Based Materials 1005.4 Carbon Derived from Various Sources and Their Performance Evaluation 1045.5 Recent Trends and Future Applications 118Acknowledgements 119References 1206 Biomass-Based Carbon Nanomaterials for Energy Storage 129Debajani Tripathy, Bibhuti B. Sahu, Ankita Subhrasmita Gadtya and Srikanta Moharana6.1 Introduction 1306.2 Overview of Carbon-Based Nanostructured Materials 1326.3 Synthesis of Carbon-Based Nanostructure Materials 1336.4 Synthetic Approach for Biomass-Derived Carbon 1346.4.1 Graphene 1346.4.2 Carbon Nanotube 1356.4.3 Carbon Onion 1366.4.4 Carbon Sphere 1376.5 Surface Alternation of Carbon Nanostructured Materials 1376.6 Biomass-Derived Carbon for Energy Conversion and Storage Systems 1416.6.1 Electrocatalysis Applications 1416.6.2 Supercapacitor Application 1436.6.3 Rechargeable Batteries 1486.6.4 Solar Cell 1516.6.5 Organic Solar Cells 1536.7 Future Challenges 1546.8 Conclusions 155Acknowledgments 155References 1557 Carbon Nanotube as Electrode Material for Supercapacitors 161Sanjeev Verma, Tapas Das, Shivani Verma, Vikas Kumar Pandey, Saurabh Kumar Pandey, Juhi Singh and Bhawna Verma7.1 Introduction 1627.2 CNT (Carbon Nanotube) 1627.3 Supercapacitor Electrodes Using Carbon Nanotube 1647.4 Summary 168References 1698 Graphene-Based Polymeric Composites with Potential Applications in Supercapacitors 175Ankita Subhrasmita Gadtya, Debajani Tripathy and Srikanta Moharana8.1 Introduction 1768.2 Overview of Graphene-Polymer Composites 1788.2.1 Electrical Properties of Graphene-Based Polymer Composite 1808.2.2 Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Graphene-Based Polymer Composites 1828.3 Supercapacitors 1838.3.1 Electro-Chemical Double Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) 1858.3.2 Pseudo-Capacitors 1868.3.3 Hybrid Capacitors 1868.4 Graphene-Based Different Polymeric Composites 1878.5 Graphene-Based Fluoropolymer Composites for SCs 1878.6 Graphene-Based Conducting Polymer Composites for SCs 1918.7 Conclusions 194Acknowledgments 194References 1959 Graphene-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 203Vikas Kumar Pandey and Bhawna VermaIntroduction 203Conclusion and Outlook 212References 21210 Metal Oxides and Their Role in Pseudocapacitors 219Rutuja A. Chavan and Anil V. GhuleSummary 21910.1 General Introduction 22010.2 Role of Metal Oxides 22410.3 Different Types of Metal Oxides Explored in Supercapacitors 22510.4 Performance Evaluation 22610.4.1 RuO2 22610.4.2 MnO2 22910.4.3 NiO 23310.4.4 Co3 O4 23610.4.5 V2 O5 23910.4.6 IrO2 24010.5 Future Scope 242References 24411 Advances in Design and Application of Nanostructured TMOs and Their Composites for High‐Performance Supercapacitors 255Sheng Qiang Zheng, Siew Shee Lim, Maxine Swee-Li Yee, Chuan Yi Foo, Choon Yian Haw, Wee Siong Chiu, Chin Hua Chia and Poi Sim Khiew11.1 Introduction 25611.2 Electrochemical Role of Metal Oxides 26011.3 Different Types of Metal Oxides as Electrode Materials 26411.3.1 Metal Oxide-Based Nanomaterials for Supercapacitors 26411.3.1.1 Metal Oxide Nanomaterials 26511.3.1.2 Binary Metal Oxides 26811.3.1.3 Ternary Metal Oxides 27011.3.1.4 Carbonaceous Nanomaterials Decorated Metal Oxides 27211.3.2 Metal-Organic Framework-Derived Porous Metal Oxide-Based Nanocomposites for Supercapacitor Applications 27411.3.2.1 MOF-Derived Metal Oxides 27411.3.2.2 MOF-Derived Carbon-Based Metal Oxide Nanocomposites 27711.4 Performance Parameters of Electrochemical Capacitors 28111.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 284Acknowledgement 286References 28612 Ceramic Oxide Based Supercapacitors 295Thangavelu Kokulnathan, Sabarison Pandiyarajan, Balasubramanian Sriram and Shobana Sebastin Mary ManickarajIntroduction 296Metal Oxide Ceramics 296Vanadium Oxide 300Manganese Oxide 301Iron Oxide 303Cobalt Oxide 304Nickel Oxide 305Aluminum Oxide 305Spinel Oxide Ceramics 307Multi-Elemental Oxide Ceramic 309Past, Current, and Future Progress 310References 31213 Conductive Polymers and Composites for Supercapacitors: Recent Trends and Future Scope 325Silki Sardana, A.S. Maan and Anil Ohlan13.1 Introduction 32513.2 CPs for Supercapacitors 32813.3 CP-Based Composites for Supercapacitors 33213.4 Recent Trends on CP-Based Supercapacitors 33413.4.1 CP/2D Material-Based Composite 33413.4.2 3D CP Hydrogels for Supercapacitors 33413.5 CP-Based Flexible Supercapacitors 33913.6 Future Scope of CP-Based Supercapacitors 34213.7 Conclusions 342References 34314 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C 3 N 4)-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications 351Himadri Tanaya Das, Swapnamoy Dutta, Elango Balaji T., Payaswini Das and Nigamananda Das14.1 Introduction 35214.2 Different Carbon Materials as Electrodes in Supercapacitors 35314.3 g-C3 N4 as Electrode Material in Supercapacitor 35514.4 g-C3 N4 Composites and Their Use as Supercapacitors 35814.5 Future Prospects 36214.6 Conclusion 363References 36415 Introduction to MXenes for Supercapacitor Applications 371Selcan Karakuş and Razium Ali Soomro15.1 Introduction 37215.2 Strategies for the Synthesis of 2D MXenes 37415.3 MXene-Based Supercapacitors 37815.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 381References 38216 MXenes for Supercapacitor Applications 387Mayank K. Singh, Sarathkumar Krishnan and Dhirendra K. Rai16.1 Introduction 38816.2 Synthesis Technique 39016.2.1 Top-Down Approach 39016.2.1.1 HF Etching 39016.2.1.2 Hydroflouride Salt Etching 39116.2.1.3 Alkali Etching 39216.2.1.4 Electrochemical Etching 39216.3 Bottom-Up Techniques 39316.4 Properties of MXenes 39316.4.1 Electrical Properties 39316.4.2 Mechanical Properties 39316.4.3 Chemical Stability 39416.5 MXenes and Its Composites 39516.5.1 Basic Principle and Mechanism 39616.5.2 Bare MXenes as Supercapacitors 39716.5.3 MXenes – Carbonaceous Composite as Supercapacitors 39916.5.4 MXenes with Polymers 40016.5.5 MXenes and Transition Metal Sulfides 40216.5.6 MXenes-Metal Oxides-Based Supercapacitors 40316.6 MXenes in Various Electrolytes 40316.6.1 Basics and Neutral Electrolyte 40316.6.2 Acidic Electrolyte 40416.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives 404Acknowledgment 405References 40517 Hybrid Supercapacitors: Recent Trends and Future Scope 415Basudeba Maharana, Rajan Jha and Shyamal Chatterjee17.1 Introduction 41617.2 Types of Hybrid Supercapacitors 41717.3 Components of Hybrid Supercapacitors 41917.3.1 Electrode Materials 42017.3.2 Electrolytes 42117.3.3 Separator 42217.3.4 Current Collector 42217.3.5 Sealants 42317.4 Recent Trends in HSCs 42317.4.1 Composite Hybrids 42417.4.2 Asymmetric Hybrids 42417.4.3 Battery Supercapacitor Hybrids 42517.4.4 Modern Trends 42717.4.5 Supercapattery 42917.5 Future Scopes and Challenges 43117.5.1 Designing Electrode Materials 43417.5.2 Resistance Issues in the Device 43417.6 Conclusions 435References 43618 Electrolytes and Their Role in Supercapacitor Technology 445Dipanwita Majumdar, Padma Sharma and Niki Sweta Jha18.1 Introduction 44618.1.1 Effect of the Electrolyte on Supercapacitor Performance 44618.1.2 What is an Ideal Electrolyte? 44818.1.3 Performance Controlling Parameters of the Electrolytes for Designing Flexible Supercapacitors 44918.2 Classes of Electrolytes for Supercapacitors 45018.2.1 Liquid Electrolytes 45018.2.1.1 Aqueous Electrolytes 45118.2.1.2 Nonaqueous Electrolytes 45818.2.2 Solid and Quasi-Solid–Type Electrolytes 46718.2.3 Redox-Active Electrolytes 47218.3 Conclusions and Outlooks 476Acknowledgments 479References 47919 Designing Supercapacitors and Supercapacitor Materials by Counting Ions 497Shrisudersan Jayaraman19.1 Introduction 49819.2 Theoretical Framework 49919.2.1 The Importance of Electrolyte Conductivity at Charged State 49919.2.2 The Importance of Volumetric Specific Capacitance 50119.2.3 Relationship Between the Device Capacitance and Volumetric Specific Capacitance of the Electrode 50219.2.4 Electrolyte Utilization Factor 50319.2.5 Critical Operating Conditions 50919.2.6 Electrolyte Concentration at the Charged State 51319.2.7 Electrolyte Conductivity at the Charged State 51519.2.8 Counter-Ion Adsorption with Desolvated Ions in the Pores 51719.2.9 Ion Exchange as the Primary Charging Mechanism with Desolvated Ions in the Pores 52019.2.10 Connecting Theory and Practical Device Performance 52219.2.11 Jelly Roll Characteristics and Electrolyte Saturation Volume 52319.2.12 Excess Electrolyte Volume 52719.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 52819.3.1 Constant Current Discharge 52819.3.2 Constant Power Discharging 53119.4 Conclusions and Summary 53419.5 Appendix: Experimental Details 53719.5.1 Electrolyte 53719.5.2 Supercapacitor Devices 53719.5.3 Electrochemical Testing 538Acknowledgement 539References 53920 Global Market, Applications, and Leading Suppliers for Supercapacitors: An Introduction 543Shebin Stephen George and C. Sarathchandran20.1 Introduction to the Global Market of Supercapacitors 54320.2 Applications of Supercapacitors 54520.2.1 Recycling of Supercapacitors 54720.3 Safety Issues Associated with Supercapacitors 54920.4 Conclusion 549References 55021 Applications of Supercapacitor 553Raunak Pandey, Santhosh G., Sarvajith Malali Sudhakara, Nannan Wang and Santosh K. Tiwari21.1 Introduction 55421.2 Energy-Harvesting Sources 55521.2.1 Vibration or Mechanical Energy Harvesting 55621.2.2 Ocean Wave Energy 55621.2.3 Radiofrequency 55721.2.4 Solar Energy 55721.2.5 Wind Energy 55721.3 Applications of Supercapacitors 55921.3.1 Electronics 55921.3.2 Energy Buffers 56021.3.3 Microgrids 56121.3.4 Consumer Electronics 56521.3.5 Mechanical Tools 56721.3.6 Flashlights 56821.3.7 Internet of Things 56921.3.8 Wearable Electronics 57321.3.9 Static Memories 57621.4 Transport 57621.4.1 Electrical and Hybrid Vehicles 57721.4.2 Energy Recovery and Management in EVs 58121.4.3 Regenerative Braking 58321.5 Medical 58621.6 Industrial 58921.7 Military 59121.8 Conclusion 593Bibliography 593Index 611