Polymer Electrolytes

Tan Winie is Associate Professor in the School of Physics and Material Science at Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. She is an Associate Fellow of the Malaysian Scientific Association. Abdul Kariem Arof is a retired Professor in the Department of Physics at University of Malaya, Malaysia. Sabu Thomas is Professor, School of Chemical Sciences and Vice Chancellor, Mahatma Gandhi University, India.

• Preface xiii1 Polymer Electrolytes: State of the Art 1Masashi Kotobuki1.1 Introduction 11.2 Solid Polymer Electrolyte 41.3 Gel Polymer Electrolyte 81.4 Composite Polymer Electrolyte 121.5 Summary 17References 172 Impedance Spectroscopy in Polymer Electrolyte Characterization 23Mohamed Abdul Careem, Ikhwan Syafiq Mohd Noor, and Abdul K. Arof2.1 Introduction 232.2 IS: Principal Operation and Experimental Setup 232.2.1 Basic Principles of Impedance Spectroscopy 232.2.2 Impedance Spectroscopy (IS) Technique 252.2.3 Electrical Conductivity of a Sample 262.2.4 Conditions Necessary for IS Measurements 262.2.5 Impedance Plots of Simple Circuits 282.2.5.1 A Pure Resistance, R 282.2.5.2 A Pure Capacitance, C 282.2.5.3 R and C Connected in Series 292.2.5.4 R and C Connected in Parallel 302.2.5.5 Combined Series and Parallel Circuits 312.2.5.6 Impedance Spectra of Model Electrolyte Systems 322.2.6 Possible Conduction Processes in a Solid Electrolyte 352.2.7 Impedance Spectra of Real Systems 362.2.7.1 The Constant Phase Element (CPE) 372.2.7.2 Equivalent Circuits for Real Systems 372.2.7.3 Electrolyte/Electrode (E/E) Interface 392.2.7.4 Diffusion Impedance or Mass Transport Impedance 392.2.7.5 Warburg Impedance 402.2.7.6 Equivalent Circuit Representation of an E/E System 412.2.8 Impedance-Related Functions 422.2.8.1 Immittance Functions 432.2.8.2 Relationships Between Immittance Functions 432.2.8.3 Immittance Plots 432.2.8.4 Choice Between Immittance Functions 462.2.9 Experimental Setup 462.2.9.1 Sample and Cell Arrangement 472.2.9.2 Other Practical Details and Precautions 482.3 IS: Experimental Data Interpretation and Analysis 492.3.1 Determination of Bulk Resistance from the Impedance Plots 492.3.2 Impedance Data Interpretation and Analysis 502.3.2.1 Interpretation of Impedance Data 512.3.2.2 Choice of Equivalent Circuits 512.3.3 Determination of Transport Parameters from Impedance Data 532.3.3.1 Bandara–Mellander (B–M) Method 532.3.3.2 Nyquist Plot Fitting Method 572.3.4 Some Experimental Results and Analysis 592.3.4.1 Conductivity Calculation of Impedance Plots 592.3.4.2 Conductivity Determination from Fitting Equivalent Circuit 602.3.4.3 Evaluation of Transport Properties using Nyquist Plot Fitting Method 602.4 Conclusions 63References 643 Thermal Characterization of Polymer Electrolytes 65Aparna Thankappan, Manuel Stephan, and Sabu Thomas3.1 Introduction 653.2 TGA: Experimental Data Interpretation and Analysis 673.3 DSC: Experimental Data Interpretation and Analysis 753.4 DSC: Experimental Errors and Suggestion for Improvement 823.4.1 Transition(s) at 0∘C 833.4.2 Apparent Melting at Tg 833.4.3 Exothermic Peaks Below Decomposition Temperature While Heating 843.4.4 Baseline Shift after Endothermic or Exothermic Peaks 863.4.5 Sharp Endothermic Peaks During Exothermic Reactions 863.5 DMA: Experimental Data Interpretation and Analysis 87References 914 Energy in a Portable World 93Noor Syuhada Zakuan, Woo Haw Jiunn, and Tan Winie4.1 Introduction 934.2 History Development of Mobile Power 944.3 Caring for Mobile Power from Birth to Retirement 1024.3.1 Getting the Most Out of the Primary Batteries 1034.3.2 Getting the Most Out of the Lead-Acid Batteries 1034.3.3 Getting the Most Out of the Nickel-Based Batteries 1044.3.4 Getting the Most Out of the Lithium Ion Batteries 1054.4 Mobile Power Recycling 1064.4.1 Recycling Primary Batteries 1064.4.2 Recycling Rechargeable Batteries 109Acknowledgments 111References 1115 Insight on Polymer Electrolytes for Electrochemical Devices Applications 113Maria Manuela Silva, Verónica de Zea Bermudez, and Agnieszka Pawlicka5.1 Introduction 1135.2 Theory: Ionic Conductivity 1175.3 Applications 1205.3.1 Conventional Batteries and Transient Batteries 1205.3.2 Fuel Cells 1235.3.3 Supercapacitors 1245.3.4 Electrochromic Devices 1255.3.5 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 1275.3.6 Sensors 1285.3.7 Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells 128References 1296 Polymer Electrolyte Application in Electrochemical Devices 137Siti Nor Farhana Yusuf and Abdul K. Arof6.1 Introduction 1376.2 Properties of Polymer Electrolytes (PEs) 1376.3 Review of Polymer Electrolytes 1386.3.1 Dry Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs) 1386.3.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs) 1416.3.2.1 Ionic Liquid Gel Polymer Electrolytes (ILGPEs) 1446.3.2.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes with Nanomaterials 1466.4 Application of PEs in Electrochemical Devices 1486.4.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 1486.4.2 Lithium Ion Batteries 1506.4.3 Electrical Double Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) 1526.4.4 Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells 1566.4.5 Electrochromic Windows 1636.4.6 Electrochromic Materials 1646.4.6.1 Transition Metal Oxides 1646.5 Challenges and Improvements 1676.5.1 In Electrolytes 1676.5.2 In Devices 1696.5.2.1 DSSCs 1696.5.2.2 Fuel Cell 1706.5.2.3 Batteries 1716.5.2.4 EDLCs 1726.5.2.5 Electrochromic Windows (ECWs) 1726.6 Future Aspects 1736.6.1 Electrochromic Windows 1736.6.2 Batteries 1736.6.3 DSSCs 1736.6.4 Fuel Cells 174References 1757 Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Ion Batteries and Challenges: Part I 187Shishuo Liang, Wenqi Yan, Minxia Li, Yusong Zhu, Lijun Fu, and Yuping Wu7.1 Introduction 1877.2 Classification of Polymer Electrolytes 1887.2.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs) 1887.2.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs) 1907.3 Performance and Improvements 1907.4 Application and Performance of Polymer Lithium Ion Batteries 1947.5 Future Trends 195Acknowledgments 196References 1978 Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Ion Batteries and Challenges: Part II 201Siti Nor Farhana Yusuf and Abdul K. Arof8.1 Introduction 2018.2 Structure and Operation of Lithium Ion Batteries 2028.2.1 Anode Materials 2048.2.2 Cathode Materials 2058.2.3 Electrolytes 2068.2.4 Li+ Ion Transport in Polymer Electrolytes 2068.3 Polymer Electrolyte for Lithium Ion Batteries 2078.4 Performance Characteristics of Lithium Ion Batteries 2168.5 Challenges and Improvement 2188.6 Future Trends 219References 2219 Polymer Electrolytes for Supercapacitor and Challenges 231Safir Ahmad Hashmi, Nitish Yadav, and Manoj Kumar Singh9.1 Introduction 2319.2 Principle and Working Process of Supercapacitors 2329.2.1 Charge Storage Mechanisms in EDLCs 2339.2.2 Charge Storage Mechanisms in Pseudocapacitors 2369.2.2.1 Underpotential Deposition 2379.2.2.2 Redox Pseudocapacitance 2379.2.2.3 Intercalation Pseudocapacitance 2389.3 Electrolytes for Supercapacitors 2399.3.1 Liquid Electrolytes 2399.3.2 Polymer-Based Electrolytes 2419.3.2.1 Solvent-Free Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs) 2429.3.2.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs) 2429.3.2.3 Porous Polymer Electrolytes 2529.4 Performance Characteristics 2559.4.1 Electrode Characterization 2559.4.2 Characterization of Supercapacitors 2589.4.2.1 Electrochemical Characterization Techniques and Important Parameters 2589.4.2.2 Performance of Polymer Electrolyte-Based Supercapacitors: Some Case Studies 2629.5 Challenges to Solid-State Supercapacitors and Future Scope of Improvement 284References 28510 Polymer Electrolytes for Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSCs) and Challenges 299T.M.W.J. Bandara and J.L. Ratnasekera10.1 Demand and Supply of Energy 29910.2 The Sun as a Potential Energy Resource 30010.3 Advantages of Solar Cells 30110.4 Photo-Electrochemical Solar Cells 30110.4.1 General Mechanism of a Photo-Electrochemical Solar Cell 30310.4.2 Mechanism of a Photo-Electrochemical Solar Cell 30410.4.3 Semiconductor/Polymer Electrolyte Junction 30810.4.4 Photo-sensitization of Wide Bandgap Semiconductors 30810.5 Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSCs) 31010.5.1 Quantum Dots 31010.5.2 Mechanism of a QDSSC 31310.5.3 Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSCs) 31410.5.4 Polymer Electrolytes for QDSSCs 31710.6 Performances of Different QDSSCs Assemblies Based on Polymer Electrolytes 31810.6.1 Quasi-Solid-State QDSSCs Based on Polyacrylamide Hydrogel Electrolytes 31810.6.1.1 Hydrogel Electrolyte with Polyacrylamide 31810.6.2 CdS-Sensitized Cell with PAN and PVDF Electrolytes 31910.6.3 ZnO-Based Quasi-Solid QDSSCs Sensitized with CdS and CdSe 32310.6.3.1 Quasi-Solid-State Electrolyte Preparation 32410.6.4 Natural Polysaccharide Thin Film-Based Electrolyte for Quasi-Solid State QDSSCs 32410.6.5 Dextran-Based Hydrogel Polysulfide Electrolyte for Quasi-Solid-State QDSSCs 32510.6.6 Carbon Dots Enhance Light Harvesting in a Solid-State QDSSC 32610.6.7 Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells Based on Oligomer Gel Electrolytes 32610.6.8 QDSSCs with Thiolate/Disulfide Redox Couple and Succinonitrile-Based Electrolyte 32710.6.9 Graphene-Implanted Polyacrylamide Gel Electrolytes for QDSSCs 32810.6.10 PEO and PVDF-Based Electrolyte for Solid-State Electrolytes for QDSSCs 32910.6.11 Hydroxystearic Acid-Based Polysulfide Hydrogel Electrolyte for CdS/CdSe QDSSCs 32910.6.12 QDSSCs Based on a Sodium Polyacrylate Polyelectrolyte 33010.7 Summary 331References 33411 Polymer Electrolytes for Perovskite Solar Cell and Challenges 339Rahul Singh, Hee-Woo Rhee, Bhaskar Bhattacharya, and Pramod K. Singh11.1 Introduction 33911.2 Principle and Working Process of Perovskite Solar Cell 34111.2.1 Perovskite Materials 34211.2.2 Perovskite Structure 34411.2.3 Synthesis of Perovskite 34911.2.3.1 Solution-Processed Method 34911.2.3.2 Hot Casting Technique 35211.2.3.3 Vapor Deposition Method 35211.2.3.4 Thermal Evaporation Technique 35211.3 Polymer Electrolyte for Perovskite Solar Cell 35411.3.1 Device Fabrication 35411.3.2 Hole Transport Layer 35511.4 Performance Characteristics 35511.5 Challenges and Improvement 35611.6 Future Trends 35711.7 Conclusion 358Competing Interests 358Acknowledgments 358References 35812 Polymer Electrolytes for Electrochromic Windows 365Li Na Sim and Agnieszka Pawlicka12.1 Introduction 36512.2 Principles and Working Process of Electrochromic Window 36612.3 Types of Electrochromic Electrodes 36712.4 Mechanism of ECW 36812.5 Polymer Electrolytes for Electrochromic Windows 36912.5.1 Background 36912.5.2 Criteria of Polymer Electrolytes and Electrochromic Device 36912.5.3 Types of Polymer Electrolytes Used in ECWs 37012.5.3.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs) 37012.5.3.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs) 37412.5.3.3 Composite Polymer Electrolyte 38312.6 Present ECDs Uses/Applications 385References 385Index 391

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