Constructed Wetlands for Industrial Wastewater Treatment

Alexandros I. Stefanakis, Bauer Resources, Schrobenhausen, Germany; Bauer Nimr LLC, Muscat, Oman; and German University of Technology in Oman, Muscat, Oman.

• Series Foreword – Challenges in Water Management xviiList of Contributors xixPreface xxviiAcknowledgements xxixIntroduction to Constructed Wetland Technology 1Alexandros I. Stefanakis1 From Natural to Constructed Wetlands 12 The Need for Sustainable Solutions 33 Constructed Wetlands or Conventional Systems – Pros and Cons 34 Classification of Constructed Wetlands 64.1 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands (FWS CWs) 74.2 Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands (HSF CWs) 74.3 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands (VFCWs) 84.4 Floating Treatment Wetlands (FTWs) 94.5 Sludge Treatment Wetlands (STWs) 104.6 Aerated Constructed Wetlands 115 Design Considerations of Constructed Wetlands 116 Constructed Wetlands as a Sustainable Solution for the Industrial Sector 147 Scope of this Book 16References 17Part I Petrochemical and Chemical Industry 231 Integrated Produced Water Management in a Desert Oilfield Using Wetland Technology and Innovative Reuse Practices 25Alexandros I. Stefanakis, Stephane Prigent and Roman Breuer1.1 Introduction 251.2 Constructed Wetland for Produced Water Treatment 271.2.1 Location and Description 271.2.2 Weather Station 281.2.3 Chemical Analyses 301.3 Results and Discussion 321.3.1 Weather Data 321.3.2 Water Quality 321.3.3 Environmental Performance 351.4 Treated Effluent Reuse for Saline Irrigation 361.5 Conclusions 39References 392 Constructed Wetlands Treating Water Contaminated with Organic Hydrocarbons 43Martin Thullner, Alexandros I. Stefanakis and Saeed Dehestani2.1 Introduction 432.1.1 Benzene Removal in Constructed Wetlands 442.2 MTBE Removal in Constructed Wetlands 482.3 Phenol Removal in Constructed Wetlands 512.4 Combined Treatment of Different Compounds 54References 56Part II Food and Beverage Industry 653 Aerated Constructed Wetlands for Treatment of Municipal and Food Industry Wastewater 67A. Pascual, D. De la Varga, M. Soto, D. Van Oirschot, R.M. Kilian, J.A. Álvarez, P. Carvalho, H. Brix and C.A. Arias3.1 Introduction 673.2 Aerated Constructed Wetlands 683.2.1 Oxygen Transfer at the Water–Biofilm Interface 693.2.2 Benefits of Artificial Aeration in Constructed Wetlands 703.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen Profile along CWs 713.2.4 TSS Removal 713.2.5 COD Removal 713.2.6 Nitrogen Removal 723.3 HIGHWET Project 723.3.1 KT Food Pilot Plant 733.3.2 Research Operational Plan of KT Food Treatment Plant 733.3.2.1 Campaign 1 773.3.2.2 Campaign 2 783.3.2.3 Campaign 3 803.3.2.4 Campaign 4 823.3.2.5 Campaign 5 843.3.3 Comparison of Results 853.4 Conclusions 87Acknowledgements 88References 884 Treatment of Wineries and Breweries Effluents using Constructed Wetlands 95F. Masi, A. Rizzo, and R. Bresciani4.1 Introduction 954.2 Wastewater Production and Characterization 964.2.1 Wineries 964.2.2 Breweries 964.3 Applications and Configurations 974.3.1 Wineries 974.3.1.1 Multistage CW with Nature-Based Composting as Pretreatment for Wastewater: An Italian Case Study 984.3.1.2 Multistage CW with Technological Composting as Pretreatment for Wastewater: A Spanish Case Study 994.3.1.3 Multistage CW with Technological Aerobic Reactor and Subsequent Composting on CW: A French Case Study 1004.3.2 Breweries 1014.4 Discussion and Conclusions 1014.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Multistage CW Treatment Plants 1014.4.2 Future Perspectives of CW for Brewery Wastewater Treatment 103References 1035 Treatment of Effluents from Fish and Shrimp Aquaculture in Constructed Wetlands 105YalçınTepeandFulyaAydın Temel5.1 Introduction 1055.1.1 Concerns in Aquaculture 1055.2 Overview of Aquaculture and Effluent Treatment 1075.2.1 Effluent Water Quality Considerations 1085.3 Use of Constructed Wetlands for Treatment of Fish and Shrimp Aquaculture Effluents 1125.3.1 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands (FWS CWs) 1135.3.2 Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands (SFCWs) 1145.3.3 Hybrid Systems (HS) 1155.4 Conclusions 119References 1206 Evaluation of Treatment Wetlands of Different Configuration for the Sugarcane-Mill Effluent under Tropical Conditions 127E. Navarro, R. Pastor, V. Matamoros and J.M. Bayona6.1 Introduction 1276.2 Modeling Water Consumption Minimization 1306.2.1 First Approach to Linearity 1316.2.2 A MILP Approach to the Problem 1316.3 Type of Effluent and Pretreatment 1336.3.1 Physical–Chemical Methods 1336.3.2 Intensive Biological Processes 1336.3.2.1 Suspended Bed Reactor 1336.3.2.2 Fixed Bed Reactor 1336.3.2.3 Fluidized Bed Reactor 1346.3.3 Extensive Biological Processes 1346.4 Constructed Wetlands (CWs) 1356.4.1 Case Studies 1356.4.1.1 India 1356.4.1.2 Kenya 1376.4.1.3 Mexico 1376.4.1.4 South Africa 1386.4.1.5 Thailand 1386.4.2 Effects of Design and Operation on the COD, BOD and Nutrient Removal 1396.4.3 Other Water Quality Parameters 1406.4.3.1 Turbidity 1406.4.3.2 Pigments 1406.4.3.3 Sulfate 1406.4.3.4 Nitrogen Removal 1416.4.3.5 Phosphorus 1416.5 Research Needs 141Acknowledgements 141References 1427 Treatment of Effluents from Meat, Vegetable and Soft Drinks Processing using Constructed Wetlands 145Marco Hartl, Joseph Hogan and Vasiliki Ioannidou7.1 Treatment of Slaughterhouse and Meat Processing Wastewater 1457.2 Treatment of Potato Washing Wastewater 1507.3 Treatment of Molasses Wastewater 1537.4 Treatment of Effluents from Coffee Processing 157References 160Part III Agro-Industrial Wastewater 1638 Olive Mill Wastewater Treatment in Constructed Wetlands 165F. Masi, A. Rizzo, R. Bresciani, Dimitrios V. Vayenas, C.S. Akratos, A.G. Tekerlekopoulou and Alexandros I. Stefanakis8.1 Introduction 1658.2 Wastewater Production and Characterization 1668.3 Applications and Configurations 1668.3.1 The Greek Experiences 1688.3.1.1 Free Water Surface CWs 1688.3.1.2 Horizontal Subsurface Flow CWs 1708.3.1.3 Vertical Flow CWs 1708.3.1.4 Hybrid Wetland Systems 1718.4 Evaporation Plus Constructed Wetlands: An Italian Innovative Approach 1728.5 Discussion and Conclusions 172References 1739 Dairy Wastewater Treatment with Constructed Wetlands: Experiences from Belgium, the Netherlands and Greece 175C.S. Akratos, D. Van Oirschot, A.G. Tekerlekopoulou, Dimitrios V. Vayenas and Alexandros I. Stefanakis9.1 Introduction 1759.2 Brief Literature Review on Wetland Systems for Dairy Wastewater Treatment 1769.3 Experiences from the Netherlands and Belgium 1819.3.1 Wetland System Description 1829.3.2 Operation 1839.3.3 Results from the Netherlands 1849.3.3.1 Experimental Projects 1849.3.3.2 Stimulation of Denitrification through Recirculation of Effluent 1859.3.3.3 Phosphorus Removal 1859.3.4 Results from Belgium 1879.3.4.1 System at Poppe, Eeklo 1879.3.4.2 System at De Paep, Sint-Gillis Waas in Belgium 1889.3.4.3 System at PDLT, Geel in Belgium 1899.3.4.4 Aerated Wetland (FBA) at PDLT, Geel in Belgium 1909.4 Experiences from Greece 1929.4.1 First Experimental Project 1929.4.2 Second Experimental Project 1969.5 Conclusions 197References 19810 The Performance of Constructed Wetlands for Treating Swine Wastewater under Different Operating Conditions 203Gladys Vidal, Catalina Plaza de Los Reyes and Oliver Sáez10.1 Introduction 20310.1.1 The Swine Sector and the Generation of Slurries 20310.1.2 Characterization of Slurries 20310.1.3 Environmental Effects of the Application of Slurry in Soils 20510.1.4 Integrated Management for Treating Swine Slurry 20510.1.5 Primary Treatment (Solids Removal) 20710.1.6 Secondary Treatment (Organic Matter Removal) 20710.1.6.1 Anaerobic Treatment Systems 20710.2 Removal of Nutrients by Constructed Wetlands 20710.2.1 Constructed Wetland (CW) 20810.2.1.1 Macrophyte Species Used in Constructed Wetlands 20910.2.1.2 Nitrogen Elimination Mechanisms in Constructed Wetlands 20910.2.1.3 Incorporation into Plant Tissue (Assimilation) 21210.2.1.4 Ammonium Sedimentation/Adsorption 21210.2.1.5 Anammox (or Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation) 21310.3 Removal of Nutrients by Constructed Wetlands using Biological Pretreatments 213Acknowledgements 216References 216Part IV Mine Drainage and Leachate Treatment 22311 Constructed Wetlands for Metals: Removal Mechanism and Analytical Challenges 225Adam Sochacki, Asheesh K. Yadav, Pratiksha Srivastava, Naresh Kumar, Mark Wellington Fitch and Ashirbad Mohanty11.1 Sources of Metal Pollution and Rationale for Using Constructed Wetlands to Treat Metal-Laden Wastewater 22511.2 Removal Mechanisms 22611.2.1 Adsorption 22611.2.2 Filtration and Sedimentation 22611.2.3 Association with Metal Oxides and Hydroxides 22711.2.4 Precipitation as Sulfides 22711.2.4.1 Mechanism of the Process 22811.2.4.2 Bacterial Sulfate Reduction in Constructed Wetlands 23011.2.4.3 Carbon Source for Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria 23111.2.5 Microbial Removal Processes 23211.2.6 Plant Uptake of Metals in Constructed Wetlands 23211.2.6.1 Metal Uptake by Aquatic Macrophytes 23211.2.6.2 Metal Uptake by the Roots 23311.2.6.3 Metal Uptake by the Shoots 23311.2.6.4 Indirect Assistance in Metal Removal by Plants 23311.2.6.5 Role of Plants in Removing Metals from Industrial Wastewater 23411.2.7 Other Processes 23511.3 Analytical Challenges 23511.3.1 Background and Overview of Methods 23511.3.2 Sequential Extraction Procedures and their Applicability to Wetland Substrates 23711.3.3 State-of-the-Art Instrumental Methods 23811.3.4 Advanced Analytical Techniques 239References 24112 A Review on the Use of Constructed Wetlands for the Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage 249C. Sheridan, A. Akcil, U. Kappelmeyer and I. Moodley12.1 What is Acid Mine Drainage? 24912.2 Sources of AMD 25012.3 Environmental and Social Impacts of AMD 25112.3.1 Environmental Impacts 25112.3.2 Social Impacts of AMD 25312.4 Remediation of AMD 25312.4.1 Constructed Wetlands 25412.4.1.1 Constructed Wetland Configuration Types 25412.4.1.2 Mechanism by which CWs Remediate Most AMD/ARD 25412.4.1.3 Constructed Wetlands for Treating AMD Prior to 2000 25512.4.1.4 Constructed Wetlands for Treating AMD Between 2001 and 2010 25612.4.1.5 Constructed Wetlands for Treating AMD from 2010 to the Present 25812.5 Summary 259References 25913 Solid Waste (SW) Leachate Treatment using Constructed Wetland Systems 263K.B.S.N. Jinadasa, T.A.O.K. Meetiyagoda and Wun Jern Ng13.1 The Nature of Solid Waste (SW) and SW Leachate 26313.2 Characteristics of SW Leachate in Tropical Developing Countries 26513.3 Treatment Methods for SW Leachate 26713.3.1 Advantages of Constructed Wetlands for Leachate Treatment Under Tropical Climate 26913.4 Experimental Methodology for Plant Species and CW Performance Evaluation 27013.5 Effect of Plant Species on Leachate Components 27313.5.1 Effect on Organic Compounds 27313.5.2 Effect on Removal and Transformation of Nitrogen Compounds 27613.6 Summary 279References 279Part V Wood and Leather Processing Industry 28314 Cork Boiling Wastewater Treatment in Pilot Constructed Wetlands 285Arlindo C. Gomes, Alexandros I. Stefanakis, António Albuquerque and Rogério Simões14.1 Introduction 28514.1.1 Cork Production and Manufacture 28514.1.2 Cork Boiling Wastewater Characteristics 28614.2 Cork Boiling Wastewater Treatment 28914.2.1 Physico-Chemical Treatment 28914.2.2 Biological Treatment 29814.2.3 Sequential Treatment 29914.3 Constructed Wetland Technology 30014.3.1 Experimental Setup of Microcosm-Scale Constructed Wetlands 30114.3.2 Experimental Results 30214.4 Conclusions 304Acknowledgements 305References 30515 Constructed Wetland Technology for Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater Treatment 309Satish Kumar and Ashutosh Kumar Choudhary15.1 Introduction 30915.2 Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater Characteristics 31015.3 Remediation of Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater Pollution 31115.4 Constructed Wetlands 31215.4.1 Performance of CWs for Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater Treatment 31215.5 Conclusions 322References 32216 Treatment of Wastewater from Tanneries and the Textile Industry using Constructed Wetland Systems 327Christos S. Akratos, A.G. Tekerlekopoulou and Dimitrios V. Vayenas16.1 Introduction 32716.1.1 Tannery Wastewaters 32716.1.2 Azo Dye and Textile Industries 33016.2 Discussion 33216.3 Constructed Wetlands for Cr(VI) Removal: A Case Study 33216.4 Conclusions 337References 338Part VI Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics Industry 34317 Removal Processes of Pharmaceuticals in Constructed Wetlands 345A. Dordio and A.J.P. Carvalho17.1 Introduction 34517.2 Pharmaceutical Compounds in the Environment: Sources, Fate and Environmental Effects 34817.3 Pharmaceuticals Removal in Constructed Wetlands 35217.3.1 Removal Efficiency of Pharmaceuticals in CWS 35217.3.2 Main Removal Processes for Pharmaceuticals in SSF-CWS 36517.3.2.1 Abiotic Processes 36517.3.2.2 Biotic Processes 36717.3.3 The Role of SSF-CWS Components in Pharmaceuticals Removal 37017.3.3.1 The Role of Biotic Components (Plants and Microorganisms) in Pharmaceuticals Removal 37017.3.3.2 The Role of the Support Matrix in Pharmaceuticals Removal 38117.4 Final Remarks 385References 38618 Role of Bacterial Diversity on PPCPs Removal in Constructed Wetlands 405María Hijosa-Valsero, Ricardo Sidrach-Cardona, Anna Pedescoll, Olga Sánchez and Eloy Bécares18.1 Introduction 40518.2 Mesocosm-Scale Experiences 40618.2.1 Description of the Systems 40618.2.2 Sampling Strategy 40618.2.3 Analytical Methodology 40818.3 Pollutant Concentrations and Removal Efficiencies in Mesocosms CWs 40918.4 Microbiological Characterization 40918.5 Link between Microbiological Richness and Pollutant Removal in CWs 41318.5.1 Microbial Richness and Conventional Pollutant Removal 41318.5.1.1 Roots 41318.5.2 Microbial Richness and PPCP Removal 41418.5.2.1 Gravel 41418.5.2.2 Interstitial Liquid 41418.5.2.3 Roots 41418.5.3 Effect of Physico-Chemical Parameters on Microbial Richness 41618.5.3.1 Gravel 41618.5.3.2 Interstitial Liquid 41618.5.3.3 Roots 41618.6 Mechanisms and Design Parameters Involved in PPCPs Removal 41818.7 Conclusions 420Acknowledgements 421References 421Part VII Novel Industrial Applications 42719 Dewatering of Industrial Sludge in Sludge Treatment Reed Bed Systems 429S. Nielsen and E. Bruun19.1 Introduction 42919.2 Methodology 43119.2.1 Description of an STRB 43119.2.2 Description of STRB Test-System 43219.3 Treatment of Industrial Sludge in STRB Systems 43419.3.1 Organic Material in Sludge 43419.3.2 Fats and Oil in Sludge 43419.3.3 Heavy Metals in Sludge 43519.3.4 Nutrients in Sludge 43619.3.5 Hazardous Organic Compounds in Sludge 43619.4 Case Studies – Treatment of Industrial Sludge in Full-Scale and Test STRB Systems 43719.4.1 Case 1: Treatment of Industrial Sewage Sludge with High Contents of Fat 43719.4.2 Case 2: Treatment of Industrial Sewage Sludge with High Contents of Heavy Metal (Nickel) 43819.4.3 Case 3: Treatment of Water Works Sludge 44019.4.3.1 Feed Sludge and Resulting Filtrate Quality 44219.4.3.2 Sedimentation and Capillary Suction Time 44319.4.3.3 Sludge Volume Reduction and Sludge Residue Development 44619.4.3.4 Filtrate Water Flow 44719.5 Discussion and Conclusions 44819.5.1 Industrial Sludge 44819.5.2 Water Works Sludge 449Acknowledgements 450References 45020 Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement and Temperature Reduction at a Power-Generating Facility 453Christopher H. Keller, Susan Flash and John Hanlon20.1 Introduction 45320.2 Basis of Design 45320.2.1 Design for Ammonia and Copper Reduction 45420.2.2 Design for pH, Toxicity, and Specific Conductance 45620.2.3 Design for Temperature Reduction 45620.2.4 Process Flow and Final Design Criteria 45820.3 Construction 45820.4 Operational Performance Summary 45920.4.1 Inflow and Outflow Rates and Wetland Water Depths 45920.4.2 Ammonia 46320.4.3 Copper 46320.4.4 pH 46320.4.5 Temperature 46420.4.6 Whole Effluent Toxicity 46620.4.7 Specific Conductance 46620.5 Discussion 466References 46821 Recycling of Carwash Effluents Treated with Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands 469A. Torrens, M. Folch, M. Salgot and M. Aulinas21.1 Introduction 46921.2 Case Study: Description 47121.2.1 Pilot Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland 47121.2.2 Pilot Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetland 47121.2.3 Operation and Monitoring 47221.3 Case Study: Results and Discussion 47421.3.1 Influent Characterization 47421.3.2 Effluent Quality for Recycling 47721.3.3 Performance of the Constructed Wetland Pilots 47821.3.3.1 Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetland 47821.3.3.2 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland 48221.3.3.3 Comparison of Performances 48621.4 Design and Operation Recommendations 48821.4.1 Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetland 48821.4.2 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland 48921.5 Conclusions 489References 49022 Constructed Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell: An Emerging Integrated Technology for Potential Industrial Wastewater Treatment and Bio-Electricity Generation 493Asheesh K. Yadav, Pratiksha Srivastava, Naresh Kumar, Rouzbeh Abbassi and Barada Kanta Mishra22.1 Introduction 49322.2 The Fundamentals of MFC and Microbial Electron Transfer to Electrode 49522.3 State of the Art of CW-MFCs 49622.3.1 Design and Operation of CW-MFCs 49622.3.2 Performance Evaluation of Various CW-MFCs 49722.4 Potential Industrial Wastewater Treatment in CW-MFCs 50022.5 Challenges in Generating Bio-Electricity in CW-MFCs During Industrial Wastewater Treatment 50222.6 Future Directions 503Acknowledgements 504References 50423 Constructed Wetlands for Stormwater Treatment from Specific (Dutch) Industrial Surfaces 511Floris Boogaard, Johan Blom and Joost van den Bulk23.1 Introduction 51123.2 Stormwater Characteristics 51123.2.1 Stormwater Quality in Urban Areas 51123.2.2 Industrial Stormwater Quality 51323.2.3 Fraction of Pollutants Attached to Particles 51323.2.3.1 Particle Size Distribution 51523.2.4 Removal Efficiency 51523.3 Best Management Practices of (Dutch) Wetlands at Industrial Sites 51523.3.1 Amsterdam Westergasfabriekterrein 51823.3.2 Constructed Wetland Oostzaan: Multifunctional High Removal Efficiency 51823.3.3 Constructed Wetland Hoogeveen, Oude Diep 52023.3.4 Cost 52023.3.5 Choosing Best Location(s) of Wetlands on Industrial Areas 52123.4 Innovation in Monitoring Wetlands 52323.4.1 Innovative Determination of Long-Term Hydraulic Capacity of Wetlands 52323.4.2 Innovating Monitoring of Removal Efficiency and Eco-Scan 52523.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 52523.5.1 Conclusions 52523.5.2 Recommendations 527References 527Part VIII Managerial and Construction Aspects 52924 A Novel Response of Industry to Wastewater Treatment with Constructed Wetlands: A Managerial View through System Dynamic Techniques 531Ioannis E. Nikolaou and Alexandros I. Stefanakis24.1 Introduction 53124.2 Theoretical Underpinning 53224.2.1 Constructed Wetlands – A Short Review 53224.2.2 Constructed Wetlands: An Economic–Environmental Approach 53324.2.3 Constructed Wetlands: An Industrial Viewpoint 53424.2.4 CWs Through a CSR Glance 53424.3 Methodology 53624.3.1 Research Structure 53624.3.2 The CSR-CWs Agenda 53724.3.3 CSR-CWs Balanced Scorecard 53724.3.4 CSR-CWs Balanced Scorecard System Dynamic Model 53924.3.5 Some Certain Scenario Developments 54024.4 Test of Scenarios and a Typology Construction for Decision Making 54124.4.1 Scenario Analysis 54124.4.1.1 The Proactive Industry – The Business Case Approach 54124.4.1.2 Proactive Industry – The Ethical Case Approach 54124.4.1.3 Reactive Industry – The Business Case Approach 54324.4.1.4 Reactive Industry – The Ethical Case Approach 54324.4.2 A Typology of Industry Decision Making in CSR-CWs Agenda 54424.5 Conclusion and Discussion 545References 54625 A Construction Manager’s Perception of a Successful Industrial Constructed Wetland Project 551Emmanuel Aboagye-Nimo, Justus Harding and Alexandros I. Stefanakis25.1 Key Performance Indicators for Construction Projects 55125.2 Function and Values of Constructed Wetlands 55225.2.1 Constructed Wetland Components 55325.3 Clear Deliverables of Project 55425.3.1 Health and Safety Considerations in Construction Projects 55525.3.2 Hazard Identification and Risk Screening 55625.3.3 Securing the Project 55625.4 Critical Points in Constructing Wetlands 55625.5 Summary 559References 560Index 563