Quantitative Research Methods for Communication

Jason S. Wrench is Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication and Media at the State University of New York at New Paltz.Candice Thomas-Maddox is Regional Coordinator and Associate Professor of Communication Studies at Ohio University Lancaster.Virginia Peck Richmond is Professor and Chair of the Communication Studies Department at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and Professor of Communication Studies (Emerita) at West Virginia University.James C. McCroskey was Scholar in Residence in the College of Arts and Humanities at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and Professor of Communication Studies (Emeritus) at West Virginia University.

• BRIEF CONTENTSPreface CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Communication Research CHAPTER 2 Empirical Research CHAPTER 3 Research Ethics CHAPTER 4 Searching for Previous Research and American Psychological Association Style CHAPTER 5 Research Structure and Literature Reviews CHAPTER 6 Variables CHAPTER 7 Measurement CHAPTER 8 Reliability and Validity CHAPTER 9 Survey Research CHAPTER 10 Content Analysis CHAPTER 11 Experimental Design CHAPTER 12 Sampling Methods CHAPTER 13 Hypothesis Testing CHAPTER 14 Descriptive Statistics CHAPTER 15 Chi-Square (?2) Test of Independence CHAPTER 16 Independent Samples t Tests CHAPTER 17 One-Way Analysis of Variance CHAPTER 18 Correlation CHAPTER 19 Regression CHAPTER 20 Presenting Research Appendix A Qualitative Research (Available online https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Appendix B Textbook Questionnaire (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Appendix C Open-Source Statistical Software Alternatives (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Appendix D Big Data (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Appendix E Advanced Statistical Procedures (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Glossary IndexCONTENTSPreface CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Communication Research The History of the Social Sciences The Nature of Communication Understanding the Book's Format Research Outside the Walls of Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 2 Empirical Research Ways of Knowing Epistemology Ordinary Versus Scientific Ways of Knowing The Scientific Approach to Communication Research Scientific Method Theories Describe the National Phenomenon Predict the Future Falsification Predictions/Hypotheses Observations Empirical Generalizations Conclusion Research Outside the Walls of Academia CHAPTER 3 Research Ethics Defining Ethics Good Means-Good End: Ethical BehaviorBad Means-Bad End: Unethical Behavior Bad Means-Good End: Machiavellian Ethic Good Means-Bad End: Subjective Ethic The Belmont Report's Effect on Research Ethics Informed Consent Principle of Beneficence Justice Institutional Review Boards Institutional Review Board Basics Informed Consent Institutional Review Board Processes Basic Institutional Review Board FunctionsFull-Board Review Specific Ethical Issues for Research Data Accuracy Data Sharing Duplicate Data Publication Post Hoc Hypothesis Revision Participant Identity Disclosures Authorship Credit Conflicts of Interest Plagiarism Source-Not-Cited Types of Plagiarism Source-Cited Types of Plagiarism Ethical Research Outside Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 4 Searching for Previous Research and American PsychologicalAssociation Style Step 1: Identifying the Topic Step 2: Clarifying the Research Question and Generating Key TermsStating The Topic In The Form of a Research Question Identifying Key Terms and Synonymous Terms Step 3: Locating Sources of Information Types of Information Sources Locating Information Sources Handbooks and Subject Encyclopedias Electronic Databases The World Wide Web Evaluating Web Sources Step 4: Organizing and Evaluating Information Step 5: Citing Sources of Information Using the APA Format What Information Must Be Referenced? Citing Sources of Information Parenthetical Citations Quotations and Paraphrases APA Paper Formatting Creating a Title PageCreating an Abstract Creating the First Page Creating the Reference PageConclusion CHAPTER 5 Research Structure and Literature Reviews The Abstract The Introduction Attention-Getter Using Statistics or Claims Posing a Rhetorical Question Using an Acknowledged Fact Using a Story or Illustration Quoting or Acknowledging a SourceLink To Topic Significance of Topic Espousal of Credibility Thesis and Preview Literature Review Five Reasons for Literature ReviewsPrevious Research Chronological Cause and Effect Compare and Contrast Problem-Cause-Solution Psychological Categorical/Topical General to Specific Specific to General Known to Unknown Study Rationale Method Section Participants Apparatus Procedure Instrumentation Results Section Discussion Section The Conclusion Research Outside the Walls of Academia Reading and Critiquing Academic Literature Preparing a First Draft Step 1: Identify Your General Topic Step 2: Determine The Type of Study You Are Conducting Step 3: Determine What Variables You Will Examine Step 4: Search for Primary Sources Step 5: Obtain Full Text References Step 6: Look for Other References in Obtained MaterialsStep 7: Narrow Your List of ReferencesStep 8: Organize References by Major and SubtopicsStep 9: Look for Gaps in Your References Step 10: Find References to Fill Gaps Step 11: Create a Literature Review Outline Step 12: Write Conclusion CHAPTER 6 Variables How Are Research Projects Developed? Variables: Units of Analysis Units of Analysis Aspects of Variables Variable Attributes Variable Values Understanding Relationships and Differences Relationships Differences Types of Variables Variable Levels Nominal Variables Ordinal Variables Interval Variables Likert Semantic Differential Staple's Scalogram Ratio Variables Communication Variables Nominal Variables Ordinal Variables Interval Variables Common Interval Variable Measures Communication Apprehension Ethnocentrism Humor Assessment Nonverbal ImmediacySociocommunicative Orientation Willingness to Communicate Beliefs and AttitudesRatio Variables Writing Up Scales Using APA Style ParticipantsProcedures Instrumentation Conclusion CHAPTER 7 MeasurementNumbers and Things Review of Measurement Levels Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio A History of Measurement Likert Scales Semantic Differential Measuring Communication Personality Traits/States Beliefs and Attitudes Knowledge Developing Your Operationalization Conceptualization Operationalization Constructing Questions One Measure, Multiple Factors Measurement and Statistical Analysis Research Outside the Walls of Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 8 Reliability and Validity Reliability Scalar Reliability Test-Retest Reliability Alternate Forms Reliability Split-Half Reliability Cronbach's Alpha Reliability Computer Printouts of Cronbach's Alpha SPSS and Cronbach's Alpha APA Discussion Alpha Reliabilities From This Book Reliabilities In The Real World Improving Reliability of Measurement Validity Face or Content Validity Criterion Validity Predictive Concurrent Retrospective Construct or Factorial Validity Validity Threats Problems with Measurement Research Outside the Walls of Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 9 Survey Research When to Use a Survey Do You Know What You Want To Ask? Do You Really Need To Collect New Data? Do Your Participants Know Anything or Will They Even Tell You? Is Your Goal Generalizability? How to Conduct Survey Research Step 1: Picking Your Questions Nominal Level Questions Ordinal Level Questions Interval Level Questions Ratio Level QuestionsOpen-Ended Questions Step 2: Creating Clear InstructionsStep 3: Study Design Step 4: Data Processing and Analysis Step 5: Pilot Testing Use Actual Survey Population Members Anticipate Survey Context Test Parts of the Survey Determining a Pilot Sample Size Ask Questions after Someone Completes the SurveyDisseminating Your Surveys Interviewing Face-to-Face Interviewing Telephone Interviewing Self-Administration Mass Administration Mailed Administration Internet Administration Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Administered Surveying Problem Areas Associated with Survey Research Response RateUnit Nonresponse Item Nonresponse Effects of Nonresponse Improving Response Rates Translating Surveys into Other Languages Semantic EquivalenceConceptual Equivalence Normative Equivalence Simple Direct Translation Modified Direct Translation Translation/Backtranslation Parallel Blind Technique Random Probe Using the Research Project Worksheet Question Design Setting Participants Specific Characteristics Recruitment Consent Variables Independent Variables Dependent Variables Hypotheses/Research Questions Statistical Testing Tentative Study Title Principal Researcher(s) Measurement Outside of Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 10 Content Analysis Conducting a Content Analysis Theory and Rationale Conceptualization Operationalization Coding Schemes Sampling Training and Pilot Reliability Introduction to Coding Book Sample Coding Coding of Initial Data Initial Reliability APA Write-Up Retraining Final Coding Final Reliability Tabulation And Reporting Conclusion CHAPTER 11 Experimental Design What Are Experiments and Why Do We Do Them? Rationale For Experimental Research Aspects Of Experimental Design Random Assignment Manipulation of the Independent Variable Measurement of the Dependent VariableControlling an Experiment Conducting an Experiment Introducing the Experiment and Obtaining ConsentRandom Assignment Manipulate the Independent Variable Measure the Dependent Variable Debriefing Threats to Experimental Validity Historical Flaw Maturation Testing Flaw Regression To The Mean Selection Threat Attrition Common Experimental Designs Preexperimental Designs One-Shot Case Study One-Group Pretest Posttest Design Static Group Comparisons Quasi-Experimental DesignsPretest-Posttest Design Time Series Multiple Time Series Switching Replications Design True Experimental Designs Pretest-Posttest Design Two-Group Posttest-Only Design Randomized Switching ReplicationsDesign Solomon Four-Group Design Final Thoughts on Experiments Conclusion CHAPTER 12 Sampling Methods Why Use a Sample? Population Sample The Sampling Process Selecting a Sample Design Probability Sampling Simple Random Samples Stratified Random Samples Cluster Samples Systematic Samples Sampling Error Nonprobability Samples Convenience Samples Volunteer SamplesPurposive Samples Quota Samples Network Sample Determining Sample Size Common Sense Sample Recruiting Ethical Recruitment Conclusion CHAPTER 13 Hypothesis Testing Hypotheses One-Tailed Hypotheses Two-Tailed Hypotheses Research Questions Directional Research Questions Nondirectional Research Questions Alternative and Null Hypotheses Hypothesis Testing Case Study Hypothesis Testing in the Case Study From Random Samples to a Whole Population Testing for Significance Step 1: Set the Probability Level Step 2: Conduct a Statistical Test Step 3: Comparing Calculated and Critical Values Testing for Power Effect Sizes Understanding Error The Confidence Interval Power Type I Error Type II Error Conclusion CHAPTER 14 Descriptive StatisticsThe Benefits of Statistics Descriptive Versus Inferential Statistics Measures of Central Tendency Mean Median Mode Frequency Distributions SPSS and Frequency Distributions Frequency Distributions and Charts Skewness and Kurtosis Measures of Variability Range Sum of Squares Variance Standard Deviation Dataset Variability Conclusion CHAPTER 15 Chi-Square (?2) Test of Independence Case Study Introduction Chi-Square Background Information Step-by-Step Approach to the Chi-Square Test of Independence Computer Printouts of the Chi-Square Test of IndependenceSPSS and Chi-Squares APA Write-Up Discussion of Findings Post Hoc APA Write-Up Biological Sex and Book Edition APA Write-Up Discussion of Brummans and Miller's Article Article Purpose Methodology ResultsChi-Squares Outside Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 16 Independent Samples t TestsCase Study Introduction Independent Samples t Test Background Information Step-by-Step Approach to the Independent t Test Computer Printouts of the Independent t Test SPSS and t Tests APA Write-Up (SPSS) Discussion of Findings Biological Sex and Communication Apprehension APA Write-Up (SPSS) Discussion Calculating Effect Sizes Discussion of the Weber, Fornash, Corrigan, and Neupauer Article Article Purpose Methodology Results Paired t Tests t Tests Outside Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 17 One-Way Analysis of Variance Case Study Introduction One-Way ANOVA Background InformationStep-by-Step Approach to the One-Way ANOVA Computer Printouts of the One-Way ANOVA SPSS and One-Way ANOVAsMultiple Comparison Tests APA Write-Up (Without Chart) APA Write-Up (With Chart)Discussion of Findings Political Affiliation and Humor Assessment APA Write-Up Discussion Discussion of the Boiarsky et al. Article Article Purpose Methodology Results One-way ANOVAs Outside Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 18 Correlation Correlation Background InformationTypes of Relationships Correlation Not Causation Correlation Assumptions Case Study Introduction Step-by-Step Approach to the Pearson Product-Moment CorrelationComputer Printouts of the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation SPSS and Pearson Product-Moment Correlations APA Write-UpDiscussion Relationships among CA, WTC, and Beliefs about Public SpeakingAPA Write-Up A Note About R Reading Large Correlation Tables Discussion of the Chesebro Article Article Purpose Methodology Results Discussion of the Punyanunt Article Article Purpose Methodology Results Correlations Outside Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 19 Regression Case Study Introduction Regression Background Information Step-by-Step Approach to a Linear Regression Computer Printouts of the Linear Regression SPSS and Simple Linear Regressions APA Write-Up Discussion Relationships between CA and Beliefs about Public Speaking APA Write-Up Understanding Multiple Linear Regressions APA Write-UpDiscussion Discussion of the Wrench and Booth-Butterfield Article Article Purpose Methodology Results Discussion of the Rocca and Vogl-Bauer Article Article Purpose Methodology Results Regressions Outside Academia Conclusion CHAPTER 20 Presenting Research Writing a Discussion Section Providing a Summary of Major Findings Providing an Interpretation of Findings Discussing the Relationship Between Findings and Previous Studies Acknowledging Limitations Discussing Implications and Future Directions Writing the Abstract Presenting at Conferences Divisions and Interest Groups Submitting Research For Conference Review Types of Conference Presentations Paper Presentations Poster Presentations Scholar-to-Scholar Posters Panel Discussions Publication Journal Review Process Submission ProcessReview ProcessResearch Outside the Walls of Academia Writing For Business Research and The General Public Writing Statistical Stories Infographics Conclusion Appendix A Qualitative Research (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Appendix B Textbook Questionnaire (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Appendix C Open-Source Statistical Software Alternatives (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Appendix D Big Data (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Appendix E Advanced Statistical Procedures (Available online: https://oup-arc.com/wrench)Glossary Index

This is a rare text tightly focused on quantitative research in the communication discipline (as opposed to another social science or social science more generally). One of the most compelling features is that is includes its own communication-based original data set for students to practice working with and analyzing data. - Jo Anna Grant, California State University, San Bernadino