Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry

Editor-in-Chief:Dr Fidel Toldrá, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Paterna, Valencia, Spain Consulting Editor:Dr Y. H. Hui, Science Technology System, West Sacramento, CA, USA Associate Editors:Dr Iciar Astiasarán, Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, SpainDr Joseph G. Sebranek, Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USADr Régine Talon, INRA, UR454 Microbiologie, Saint-Genès Champanelle, France

• List of Contributors xviiPreface xxiPart I Meat Fermentation Worldwide: Overview, Production, and Principles 11 Dry-Fermented Sausages and Ripened Meats: An Overview 3Fidel Toldra and Y.H. Hui1.1 Introduction 31.2 Fermented sausages and ripened meats around the world 31.3 The importance of fermented sausages 5Acknowledgement 6References 62 Production and Consumption of Fermented Meat Products 7Herbert W. Ockerman and Lopa Basu2.1 Introduction 72.2 Current products 72.3 The Future 10References 103 Principles of Meat Fermentation 13Eero Puolanne and Esko Petaja-Kanninen3.1 Introduction 133.2 Fermentation 143.3 Factors influencing fermentation 153.4 Proteolysis 153.5 Lipolysis 153.6 Antagonistic effects 16References 164 Principles of Curing 19Ronald B. Pegg and Karl O. Honikel4.1 Definition of curing 194.2 History of curing 194.3 Legislation 204.4 Chemistry of nitrite and nitrate 204.5 Nitrite and nitrate in meat products 224.6 Nitrosomyoglobin (NOMb) 274.7 N-nitrosamine formation 284.8 Conclusion 29References 295 Principles of Drying 31Raul Grau, Ana Andres, and Jose M. Barat5.1 Introduction 315.2 Basic principles of drying 315.3 Hurdle technology applied to dried meat and poultry products 325.4 Fundamentals of the drying of meat and poultry products 345.5 Drying kinetics modeling 355.6 Air conditioning and circulation in meat drying 35References 366 Principles of Smoking 39Zdzisław E. Sikorski and Izabela Sinkiewicz6.1 Introduction 396.2 Wood-smoke composition 396.3 The preserving effect 406.4 The flavoring effect 416.5 Benefits and risks 426.6 Food engineering approach 436.7 Smoking procedures 45References 45Part II Raw Materials 477 The Biochemistry of Meat and Fat 49Fidel Toldra and Milagro Reig7.1 Introduction: muscle structure 497.2 Meat composition 497.3 Muscle proteases and lipases 517.4 Adipose tissue lipases 527.5 Post mortem muscle metabolism and quality 53References 538 Ingredients 55Jorge Ruiz and Trinidad Perez-Palacios8.1 Introduction 558.2 Lean 558.3 Fat 568.4 Factors affecting the suitability of lean and fat for processing 568.5 Other ingredients 62References 659 Additives 69Pedro Roncales9.1 Introduction 699.2 Acids and related additives 699.3 Antioxidants 709.4 Colorants 709.5 Emulsifiers 719.6 Flavor enhancers 729.7 Flavoring agents 739.8 Preservatives 749.9 Multipurpose additives: phosphates 75References 7610 Spices and Seasonings 79Suey Ping Chi and Yun Chu Wu10.1 Introduction 7910.2 Ethnic preferences 7910.3 Commonly used spices in processed meats 8010.4 Botanical properties 8010.5 Product forms and appearances 8010.6 Chemical properties 8010.7 Quality standards 8110.8 Sensory properties 8210.9 Applications in fermented meat processing 8710.10 Conclusion 87References 8711 Casings 89Yun Chu Wu, Suey Ping Chi, and Souad Christieans11.1 Introduction 8911.2 Natural casings 8911.3 Artificial casings 9311.4 Regulatory compliance 9411.5 Handling casings 9511.6 Quality determination 9511.7 Conclusion 96References 96Part III Microbiology and Starter Cultures 9712 Microorganisms in Traditional Fermented Meats 99Sabine Leroy, Isabelle Lebert, and Regine Talon12.1 Introduction 9912.2 Traditional sausage manufacture 9912.3 Description of ecosystems 10012.4 Identification of technological microbiota 10212.5 Conclusion 103References 10313 The Microbiology of Fermentation and Ripening 107Margarita Garriga and Teresa Aymerich13.1 Introduction 10713.2 The manufacture of fermented sausages 10713.3 Technological microflora 10813.4 Spoilage microflora 11113.5 Foodborne pathogens 11113.6 Starter cultures 111References 11214 Bacteria 117Pier Sandro Cocconcelli and Cecilia Fontana14.1 Introduction 11714.2 Bacterial starter cultures used for fermented meats 11714.3 Starter cultures: technological advantage in the meat environment 12014.4 Safety of selected meat starter-culture bacteria 12314.5 Conclusion 124References 12415 Bioprotective Cultures 129Graciela Vignolo, Patricia Castellano, and Silvina Fadda15.1 Introduction 12915.2 Starter cultures for meat fermentation 12915.3 Competitiveness of starter cultures 13115.4 Bioprotective cultures for fermented meat products 13215.5 Conclusion 135References 13516 Yeasts 139M.D. Selgas and M.L. García16.1 Introduction 13916.2 Presence of yeasts on meat sausages 13916.3 Role of yeasts in meat products 14016.4 Yeast starter cultures 144References 14417 Molds 147Elettra Berni17.1 Introduction 14717.2 Fungal contamination in ripening environments 14717.3 Fungal starter cultures 14817.4 Lipolytic and proteolytic activity of starter cultures 14917.5 Growth and competitiveness of starter cultures 14917.6 Conclusion 151References 15118 Probiotics 155Keizo Arihara18.1 Introduction 15518.2 Probiotics and probiotic foods 15518.3 Probiotics and meat products 15618.4 Prebiotics and synbiotics 15718.5 Conclusion 158References 15819 The Genetics of Microbial Starters 161Jamila Anba-Mondoloni, Marie-Christine Champomier-Verges, Monique Zagorec, Sabine Leroy, Emilie Dordet-Frisoni, Stella Planchon, and Regine Talon19.1 Introduction 16119.2 Chromosome elements 16119.3 Plasmids 16319.4 DNA transfer and genetic tools 16319.5 Post-genomics studies 164References 16520 The Influence of Processing Parameters on Starter Culture Performance 169F. Leroy, T. Goudman and L. De Vuyst20.1 Introduction 16920.2 Influence of raw materials 16920.3 Influence of temperature 17020.4 Influence of added fermentable carbohydrates 17120.5 Influence of salting and drying 17220.6 Influence of curing agents 17320.7 Influence of spices 17320.8 Influence of sausage caliber 17320.9 Influence of maturation and molding 17320.10 Conclusion 174Acknowledgments 174References 17421 Methodologies for the Study of Microbial Ecology in Fermented Sausages 177Valentina Alessandria, Kalliopi Rantsiou, Paola Dolci and Luca Cocolin21.1 Introduction 17721.2 Molecular approaches to the study of microbial ecology in fermented sausages 17821.3 Culture-independent methods 17821.4 Definition of the microbial ecology in fermented sausages by culture-independent methods 18021.5 Culture-dependent methods 18221.6 Definition of the microbial ecology in fermented sausages by culture-dependent methods 18321.7 Conclusion 184References 185Part IV Sensory Attributes 18922 Sensory Analyses-General Considerations 191Asgeir Nilsen, Marit Rødbotten, Ken Prusa, and Chris Fedler22.1 Introduction 19122.2 Sensory methods 19122.3 Sensory analysis of fermented meat products 192References 19423 Color 195Jens K.S. Møller, Sisse Jongberg, and Leif H. Skibsted23.1 Introduction 19523.2 Color-forming compounds 19523.3 Chemistry of meat color 19523.4 Influence of fermentation parameters on color 19723.5 Bacterial role in meat color 19923.6 Natural and organic cured meat 20023.7 Color stability of cured meat products 20123.8 Conclusion 203Acknowledgment 203References 20324 Texture 207Shai Barbut24.1 Introduction 20724.2 Texture of commercial products 20724.3 Texture development during fermentation 20724.4 Texture development during ripening 21024.5 Texture development during cooking (nondried/semidried) 21124.6 Effects of processing parameters 21324.7 Effects of product modification with non-meat ingredients 21424.8 Conclusion 214References 21525 Flavor 217Monica Flores and Alicia Olivares25.1 Introduction 21725.2 Precursor generation reactions of fermented meat flavor 21725.3 Volatile compound generation reactions 21825.4 Extraction and identification of volatile compounds 21825.5 Elucidation of aroma active compounds 22025.6 Relevance of volatile compounds in fermented meats 220References 224Part V Product Categories: General Considerations 22726 Composition and Nutrition 229Daniel Demeyer26.1 Introduction 22926.2 Nutrient supply from meat and meat products 22926.3 Meat and meat products in healthy nutrition 23226.4 Recommended meat intakes 23326.5 Effects of fermentation on the nutritional and health properties of meat 234References 23627 Functional Dry-Fermented Sausages 241Diana Ansorena and Iciar Astiasaran27.1 Introduction 24127.2 Modification of the mineral content in dry-fermented sausages 24127.3 Fat modifications in dry-fermented sausages 24327.4 Incorporation of fiber into dry-fermented sausages 24527.5 Use of dry-fermented sausages as probiotics 24627.6 Incorporation of vitamins 24627.7 Conclusion 247References 24728 Low-Sodium Products 251Fidel Toldra and Jose M. Barat28.1 Introduction 25128.2 Relevance of salt in fermented meats 25128.3 Strategies for sodium reduction 25228.4 Effects of sodium reduction on quality and safety 253References 25429 International Standards: United States 259Elizabeth Boyle and Melvin C. Hunt29.1 Introduction 25929.2 US regulatory process 25929.3 Regulatory definitions and specifications 26029.4 HACCP options 26129.5 Validation 261References 26130 International Standards: Europe 263Reinhard Fries30.1 Introduction 26330.2 Quality 26330.3 Microbiological safeguarding in food chains 26630.4 Generating microbiological data in practice 26830.5 Microbiological criteria for foodstuffs in Reg. (EC) 2073/2005 270References 27031 Packaging and Storage 273Byungrok Min and Dong Uk Ahn31.1 Introduction 27331.2 Functions of food packaging 27331.3 Packaging materials 27431.4 Packaging systems 27631.5 Storage 279References 279Part VI Semidry-Fermented Sausages 28132 US Products-Semidry Sausage 283Robert E. Rust32.1 Introduction 28332.2 Methods of acidification 28332.3 Food safety 28332.4 Manufacturing processes 28432.5 Different types of US semidry sausage 285Reference 28533 European Products 287Friedrich-Karl Lucke33.1 Introduction 28733.2 Definition of “semidry-fermented sausage” in Europe 28733.3 General remarks on the manufacture of European-style semidry-fermented sausages 28833.4 Types of European-style semidry-fermented sausage 29033.5 Safety and stability 29133.6 Conclusion 291References 291Part VII Dry-Fermented Sausages 29334 US Products-Dry Sausage 295Robert Maddock34.1 Introduction 29534.2 European versus US products 29534.3 Definitions 29534.4 US manufacturing processes for dried sausages 29634.5 Basic formulations and processes for selected large-diameter dried sausages 29734.6 Safe production of dried sausages in the United States 29834.7 Process control points for dried sausage manufacturing 298References 29935 Mediterranean Products 301Eva Hierro, Manuela Fernandez, Lorenzo de la Hoz, and Juan A. Ordon˜ ez35.1 Introduction 30135.2 Production of Mediterranean dry-fermented sausages 30135.3 Changes during ripening of Mediterranean dry-fermented sausages 30335.4 Innovation in Mediterranean dry-fermented sausages 30635.5 Conclusion 308References 30936 Northern European Products 313Askild Holck, Even Heir, Tom C. Johannessen, and Lars Axelsson36.1 Introduction 31336.2 Characteristics of Northern European sausages 31336.3 Sausages of Central Europe 31636.4 Sausages of Eastern Europe 31736.5 Sausages of the Nordic countries 318References 32037 Asian Products 321Ming-Ju Chen, Rung-Jen Tu, and Sheng-Yao Wang37.1 Introduction 32137.2 Chinese products 32137.3 South East Asian products 32437.4 Himalayan fermented meat products 326References 326Part VIII Fermented Products from Poultry and Other Meats 32938 Fermented Poultry Sausages 331E. Arnaud, S.J. Santchurn, and A. Collignan38.1 Introduction 33138.2 Fermented poultry sausages 33238.3 Other fermented products 336References 33639 Fermented Sausages from Other Meats 339Emin Burcin Ozvural and Halil Vural39.1 Introduction 33939.2 Fermented products from other meats 33939.3 Scientific studies on other meats 340References 342Part IX Ripened Meat Products 34540 US Products-Dry-Cured Hams 347Dana J. Hanson, Gregg Rentfrow, M. Wes Schilling, W. Benjy Mikel, Kenneth J. Stalder, and Nicholas L. Berry 40.1 Introduction 34740.2 Country ham standards 34740.3 Commercial dry-cured ham production in the United States 34840.4 Ham curing at home 35140.5 Safety 35240.6 Cooking 35240.7 Research 352References 35341 Central and South American Products 355Silvina Fadda and Graciela Vignolo41.1 Introduction 35541.2 Meat consumption and habits 35541.3 Meat production in Latin American countries 35541.4 Typical meat products, microbial ecology, and safety risks 35641.5 Conclusion 359References 35942 Mediterranean Products 361Mario Estevez, Sonia Ventanas, David Morcuende, and Jesus Ventanas42.1 Introduction 36142.2 Production of dry-cured hams 36142.3 Spanish dry-cured hams 36242.4 Italian dry-cured hams 36542.5 French dry-cured hams 367References 36843 Nordic Products 371Torunn Thauland Haseth, Gudjon Thorkelsson, Eero Puolanne, and Maan Singh Sidhu43.1 Introduction 37143.2 Norwegian fenalår 37143.3 Norwegian pinnekjøtt 37243.4 Norwegian dry-cured ham (spekeskinke) 37343.5 Icelandic hangikjöt 37343.6 Faroese skerpikjøt 37343.7 Greenlandic mattaq and igunaq 37443.8 Finnish Lapin Poron kylmäsavuliha 37443.9 Finnish Lapin Poron kuivaliha 375References 37544 Asian Products 377Guang-Hong Zhou and Gai-Ming Zhao44.1 Introduction 37744.2 History and traits of Jinhua ham 37744.3 Processing of Jinhua ham 37744.4 Possible factors causing differences in Chinese dry-cured hams 380References 381Part X Biological and Chemical Safety of Fermented Meat Products 38345 Spoilage Microorganisms: Risks and Control 385Marie-Christine Champomier-Verges and Monique Zagorec45.1 Introduction 38545.2 Putative spoilage microorganisms 38545.3 Examples of spoilage occurring in fermented sausage 38645.4 Strategies for spoilage control 38645.5 Conclusion 387References 38846 Pathogens: Risks and Control 389Panagiotis Skandamis and George-John E. Nychas46.1 Introduction 38946.2 Hazard identification 39046.3 Hazard characterization: defense mechanism 39046.4 Exposure assessment 39246.5 Control measures 406References 40947 Biogenic Amines: Risks and Control 413M. Carmen Vidal-Carou, M. Teresa Veciana-Nogues, M. Luz Latorre-Moratalla, and Sara Bover-Cid47.1 Introduction: biogenic amine classification and relevance 41347.2 Health risks of biogenic amines in fermented sausages 41347.3 Aminogenesis in fermented sausages and measures for its control 41547.4 Conclusion 424References 42448 Toxic Compounds of Chemical Origin 429Milagro Reig and Fidel Toldra48.1 Introduction 42948.2 N-nitrosamines 42948.3 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 43048.4 Oxidation 43148.5 Veterinary drug residues 43148.6 Environmental contaminants 433References 43349 Foodborne Outbreaks 435Colin Pierre49.1 Introduction 43549.2 Staphylococcus aureus 43549.3 Salmonella spp. 43549.4 Verotoxigenic strains of Escherichia coli 43649.5 Yersinia enterocolitica 43749.6 Listeria monocytogenes 43749.7 Thermotolerant Campylobacter 43849.8 Parasites 43849.9 Conclusion 438References 438Part XI Processing Sanitation and Quality Assurance 44150 Basic Sanitation 443Beatriz Melero, Ana M. Diez, and Jordi Rovira50.1 Introduction 44350.2 Raw materials and ingredients 44350.3 Plant environment 44350.4 Personnel hygiene and training 446References 44851 Processing Plant Sanitation 451Jordi Rovira, Ana M. Diez, and Beatriz Melero51.1 Introduction 45151.2 Fermented meat products and poultry 45151.3 Fermented sausage processing plant sanitation 45251.4 Methods of evaluating the sanitation state of a plant 45751.5 Final considerations 458References 45852 Quality Control 461Fidel Toldra, Monica Flores, and M. Concepcion Aristoy52.1 Introduction 46152.2 Quality controls at each stage of processing 46152.3 Control of drying 46252.4 Control of sensory quality 462References 46653 HACCP: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points 469M.J. Fraqueza and A.S. Barreto53.1 The HACCP concept: why use it 46953.2 HACCP model for fermented sausages: a generic model for HACCP implementation in traditional establishments and small fermented sausage plants 47053.3 Validation of the operative HACCP plan 48353.4 Revision of the HACCP plan 48353.5 Certification of food safety management systems 484References 48454 Quality Assurance Plan 487Friedrich-Karl Lucke54.1 Introduction 48754.2 General remarks on the purchase and selection of raw materials 48754.3 Quality assurance plans and records for fermented sausages 48854.4 Quality assurance plans and records for raw dry hams 49054.5 Slicing, packaging, and storage of fermented sausages and raw dry hams 49254.6 End-product testing 49254.7 General remarks about the structure and extent of documentation 493References 493Index 495