Carbon Allotropes and Composites

Chandrabhan Verma, PhD, works at the Interdisciplinary Center for Research in Advanced Materials, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Saudi Arabia. He obtained his PhD in material science/chemistry at the Indian Institute of Technology, Varanasi, India. He is the Associate Editor-in- Chief of the Organic Chemistry Plus Journal. He has published many articles in international journals and has over 9000 citations. Dr. Verma has received several awards for his academic achievements. Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an adjunct professor and director of laboratories in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Science at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, United States. His research is focused on the applications of nanotechnology and advanced materials, environmental management, analytical chemistry, and other various industries. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals, as well as a prolific author and editor of around a hundred books.

• Preface xv1 Preparation of Carbon Allotropes Using Different Methods 1Omar Dagdag, Rajesh Haldhar, Seong-Cheol Kim, Elyor Berdimurodov, Sheerin Masroor, Ekemini D. Akpan and Eno E. EbensoAbbreviations 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Synthesis Methods 31.2.1 Synthesis of CNTs 31.2.1.1 Arc Discharge Method 31.2.1.2 Laser Ablation Method 41.2.1.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 51.2.1.4 Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PE-CVD) 71.2.2 Synthesis of CQDs 71.2.2.1 Arc Discharge 81.2.2.2 Laser Ablation 91.2.2.3 Acidic Oxidation 91.2.2.4 Combustion/Thermal Routes 101.2.2.5 Microwave Pyrolysis 101.2.2.6 Electrochemistry Method 101.2.2.7 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Synthesis 101.3 Conclusions 11References 112 Carbon Allotrope Composites: Basics, Properties, and Applications 17Sheerin Masroor2.1 Introduction 172.2 Allotropes of Carbon 182.3 Basics of Carbon Allotrope Composites and Their Properties 222.4 Composites of Graphite or Graphite Oxide (GO) 222.4.1 Applications of Graphite Oxide 242.5 Composites of Graphene 242.5.1 Applications of Graphene Oxide 242.6 Composite of Graphite-Carbon Nanotube (Gr-CNT)/ Polythene or Silicon 252.6.1 Applications of Graphite-Carbon Nanotube (Gr-CNT)/ Polythene or Silicon 262.7 Graphene (or Graphene Oxide)–Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Composites 262.7.1 Applications of CNF Composites 262.8 Graphene-Fullerene Composites 262.8.1 Applications of Graphene-Fullerene Composites 262.9 Conclusion 27References 273 Activation of Carbon Allotropes Through Covalent and Noncovalent Functionalization: Attempts in Modifying Properties for Enhanced Performance 31Richika Ganjoo, Shveta Sharma and Ashish Kumar3.1 Introduction 323.1.1 Carbon Allotropes: Fundamentals and Properties 323.1.1.1 Graphite 343.1.1.2 Diamond 343.1.1.3 Graphene 353.1.1.4 Activated Carbon 363.1.1.5 Carbon Nanotubes and Fullerene 363.1.2 Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 373.1.2.1 Covalent Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 383.1.2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 393.2 Applications of Functionalized Carbon Allotropes 423.2.1 Biomedical 423.2.2 Waste Treatment 433.2.3 Pollutants Decontamination 433.2.4 Anticorrosive 443.2.5 Tribological 443.2.6 Catalytic 453.2.7 Reinforced Materials 463.3 Conclusions and Future Directions 47References 474 Carbon Allotropes in Lead Removal 51Shippi Dewangan, Amarpreet K. Bhatia and Nishtha Vaidya4.1 Introduction 524.2 Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs) 554.3 Dimension-Based Types of Carbon Nanomaterials 554.4 Purification of Water Using Fullerenes 564.5 Application of Graphene and Its Derivatives in Water Purification 574.6 Application of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) in Water Purification 584.7 Conclusion 66References 675 Carbon Allotropes in Nickel Removal 73Amarpreet K. Bhatia, Nishtha Vaidya and Shippi Dewangan5.1 Introduction 745.2 Carbon and Its Allotropes: As Remediation Technology for Ni 765.2.1 Nanotubes Based on Carbon 775.2.1.1 Overview 775.2.1.2 Features of CNTs 775.2.2 Fullerenes 805.2.3 Graphene 805.2.3.1 Overview 805.2.3.2 Properties 825.3 Removal of Ni in Wastewater by Use of Carbon Allotropes 835.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes for Ni Adsorption From Aqueous Solutions 835.3.2 Ni Adsorption From Aqueous Solutions on Composite Material of MWCNTs 845.3.3 GR and GO-Based Adsorbents for Removal of Ni 845.4 Conclusion 88References 886 Molybdenum-Modified Carbon Allotropes in Wastewater Treatment 91Madhur Babu Singh, Anirudh Pratap Singh Raman, Prashant Singh, Pallavi Jain and Kamlesh Kumari6.1 Introduction 926.2 Carbon-Based Allotropes 936.2.1 Graphene 936.2.2 Graphite 936.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 956.2.4 Glassy Carbon (GC) 956.3 Molybdenum Disulfide 966.3.1 Synthesis of MoS 2 966.3.2 Physical Methods 976.3.3 Chemical Methods 986.3.4 Properties 996.4 Application of MoS 2 1006.4.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 1016.4.2 Catalyst 1016.4.3 Desalination 1016.4.4 Lubrication 1026.4.5 Sensor 1036.4.6 Electroanalytical 1036.4.7 Biomedical 1056.5 Molybdenum-Modified Carbon Allotropes in Wastewater Treatment 1056.6 Conclusion 107References 1087 Carbon Allotropes in Other Metals (Cu, Zn, Fe etc.) Removal 113Manoj Kumar Banjare, Kamalakanta Behera and Ramesh Kumar Banjare7.1 Introduction 1147.2 Carbon-Allotropes: Synthesis Methods, Applications and Future Perspectives 1157.3 Reaffirmations of Heavy Metal Contaminations in Water and Their Toxic Effects 1167.3.1 Copper 1167.3.2 Zinc 1167.3.3 Lead 1197.3.4 Cadmium 1197.3.5 Arsenic 1197.4 Technology is Used to Treat Heavy Ions of Metal 1197.4.1 Chemical Precipitation 1197.4.2 Ion-Exchange 1217.4.3 Adsorption 1227.4.4 Membrane Filtration 1237.4.5 Electrodialysis 1247.4.6 Flotation 1257.4.7 Electrochemical Treatment 1267.4.8 Electroflotation 1267.4.9 Coagulation and Flocculation 1427.5 Factors Influencing How Heavy Metal Ions Adhere to CNTs 1427.5.1 pH 1427.5.2 Ionic Strength 1437.5.3 CNT Dosage 1437.5.4 Contact Time 1437.5.5 Temperature 1437.5.6 Thermodynamic Variables 1437.5.7 CNT Regeneration 1447.5.8 Isotherm Equation 1447.5.9 Current Issues and the Need for Additional Study 1447.6 Conclusions 144Acknowledgments 145References 1458 Carbon Allotropes in Phenolic Compounds Removal 155Manikandan Krishnamurthy and Meenakshisundaram Swaminathan8.1 Introduction 1568.2 Carbon Materials in Phenol Removal 1598.2.1 Activated Carbon 1598.2.2 Graphene 1618.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 1628.2.4 Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide 1638.2.5 Graphitic Carbon Nitride 1648.2.6 Carbon Materials in the Biodegradation of Phenols 1658.3 Conclusions 166References 1669 Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 173Elyor Berdimurodov, Khasan Berdimuradov, Ilyos Eliboyev, Abduvali Kholikov, Khamdam Akbarov, Nuritdin Kattaev, Dakeshwar Kumar Verma and Omar Dagdag9.1 Introduction 1749.1.1 Importance of Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 1749.2 Main Part 1759.2.1 Polymer-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 1759.2.2 Graphene-Aerogels-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 1799.3 Functionalized Graphene-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 1839.4 Conclusions 187References 18710 Carbon Allotropes in Air Purification 191Nishtha Vaidya, Amarpreet K. Bhatia and Shippi Dewangan10.1 Introduction 19210.2 Historical and Chemical Properties of Some Designated Carbon-Based Allotropes 19410.3 Structure and Characteristics of Carbon Allotropes 19410.4 Uses of Carbon Nanotube Filters for Removal of Air Pollutants 20010.5 Physicochemical Characterization of CNTs 20310.6 TiO 2 Nanofibers in a Simulated Air Purifier Under Visible Light Irradiation 20410.7 Poly (Vinyl Pyrrolidone) (PVP) 20410.8 VOCs 20510.9 Heavy Metals 20510.10 Particulate Matter (PM) 20710.11 Techniques to Remove Air Pollutants and Improve Air Treatment Efficiency 20810.12 Removal of NOX by Photochemical Oxidation Process 21010.13 Chemically Adapted Nano-TiO 2 21110.14 Alternative Nanoparticulated System 21210.15 Photodegradation of NOX Evaluated for the ZnO-Based Systems 21210.16 Synthesis and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 21310.17 Mechanism of Technologies 21510.18 Conclusion 221References 22211 Carbon Allotropes in Waste Decomposition and Management 229Swati Sahu, Gajendra Singh Rathore and Sanjay Tiwari11.1 Introduction 23011.2 Management Methods for Waste 23011.2.1 Landfilling 23211.2.2 Incineration 23211.2.3 Mechanical Recycling 23211.2.3.1 Downcycling Method 23311.2.3.2 Upcycling Method 23311.3 Process of Pyrolysis: Waste Management to the Synthesis of Carbon Allotropes 23311.4 Synthesis Methods to Produce Carbon-Based Materials From Waste Materials 23511.4.1 Catalytic Pyrolysis 23511.4.2 Batch Pyrolysis-Catalysis 23711.4.3 CVD Method 23711.4.4 Pyrolysis-Deposition Followed by CVD 23811.4.5 Thermal Decomposition 23811.4.6 Activation Techniques 23911.4.6.1 Physical Activation Technique 23911.4.6.2 Chemical Activation Technique 24011.5 Use of Waste Materials for the Development of Carbon Allotropes 24011.5.1 Synthesis of CNTs Using Waste Materials 24011.5.2 Synthesis of Graphene Using Waste Materials 24311.6 Applications for Carbon-Based Materials 24511.6.1 CNTs 24511.6.2 Graphene 24711.6.3 Activated Carbon 24711.7 Conclusions 248References 24912 Carbon Allotropes in a Sustainable Environment 257Farhat A. Ansari12.1 Introduction 25812.2 Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes 25812.2.1 Covalent Functionalization 25812.2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization 26012.3 Developments of Carbon Allotropes and Their Applications 26112.4 Carbon Allotropes in Sustainable Environment 26212.5 Carbon Allotropes Purification Process in the Treatment of Wastewater 26312.5.1 Fullerenes 26412.5.2 Bucky Paper Membrane (BP) 26412.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 26512.5.3.1 CNT Adsorption Mechanism 26512.5.3.2 CNTs Ozone Method 26612.5.3.3 CNTs-Fenton-Like Systems 26712.5.3.4 CNTs-Persulfates Systems 26812.5.3.5 CNTs-Ferrate/Permanganate Systems 26912.5.4 Graphene 26912.6 Removal of Various Pollutants 27012.6.1 Arsenic 27012.6.2 Drugs and Pharmaceuticals 27412.6.3 Heavy Metals 27912.6.4 Pesticides and Other Pest Controllers 28012.6.5 Fluoride 28512.7 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) Adsorption 28712.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective 290References 29113 Carbonaceous Catalysts for Pollutant Degradation 303Poonam Kaswan, Santimoy Khilari, Ankur Srivastava, Girijesh Kumar, Pratap K. Chhotaray, Mrituanjay D. Pandey and Kamalakanta Behera13.1 Introduction 30413.2 Strategies to Develop Carbon-Based Material 30613.3 Advantages of Carbon-Based Metal Nanocomposites 30813.4 Methods for the Development of Carbon-Based Nanocomposites 31213.5 Carbon-Based Photocatalyst 31313.5.1 Fullerene (C 60) 31413.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes 31513.5.3 Graphene 31513.5.4 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C 3 N 4) 31713.5.5 Diamond 31813.6 Applications 31913.6.1 Dye Degradation 31913.6.2 Organic Transformation 32113.6.3 NOx Removal 32213.7 Factors Affecting Degradation 32213.7.1 Radiation 32213.7.2 Exfoliation 32213.7.3 pH 32313.7.4 Reaction Condition 32313.7.5 Carbonaceous Material 32313.8 Challenges 32313.9 Conclusion and Future Aspects 324Acknowledgments 325Abbreviations 325References 32514 Importance and Contribution of Carbon Allotropes in a Green and Sustainable Environment 337Ajay K. Singh14.1 Introduction 33814.1.1 Basic Aspects of Sustainability 33814.2 Changes Being Observed in Nature and Their Effect on Our Planet 33914.2.1 Water, Air, and Effect on Energy Generation 33914.2.2 Air Quality 33914.2.3 Pollution (Air/Water) 34014.2.4 Carbon Footprint 34114.2.5 Green House Effect 34214.2.6 Ozone Layer Depletion 34214.2.7 Temperature 34314.2.8 Effect on Farm Products 34314.2.9 Plastic 34514.2.10 Radiation Pollution 34614.3 Advantages of Green House Effect 34614.3.1 Supports and Promotes Life 34614.3.2 Photosynthesis 34614.4 Industrial Sustainability 34714.5 Corrosion and Its Implications 34914.5.1 Corrosion 34914.5.2 Corrosion and Sustainable Environment 35014.5.3 Industrial Operations and Environmental Sustainability 35214.5.4 Industrial Machinery Corrosion and Its Implications 35314.6 Corrosion Control and Material Properties 35514.6.1 Mechanical Properties 35514.6.2 Corrosion Resistant Materials 35814.6.3 Design Consideration 35814.6.4 Erosion Corrosion 35814.6.5 Cathodic/Anodic Protection 36014.6.6 Corrosion Inhibitors 36114.6.7 Nanomaterials 36214.7 Carbon Allotropes and Corrosion Inhibition 36314.7.1 Carbon Dots (CD) or Carbon Quantum Dots (cqd) 36414.7.2 Buckminster Fullerene C 60 36614.7.3 Graphene 36914.7.4 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 37314.8 Conclusion 37714.8.1 Commercialization 37814.8.2 Synergy in Mixed Nanohybrids 379References 379Index 383