Bio-Based Packaging

EditorsS. M. Sapuan, Professor of Composite Materials, Universiti Putra MalaysiaR.A. Ilyas, Advanced Engineering Materials and Composites (AEMC), Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra MalaysiaSeries EditorChristian Stevens, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium

• List of Contributors xixSeries Preface xxviiPreface xxix1 Starch-Based Packaging Materials 1Ying Chen, Kai Lu, Hongsheng Liu, and Long Yu1.1 Introduction 11.2 Macrostructures and Phase Transitions of Starch 21.2.1 Microstructures of Starch Granules 21.2.2 Phase Transition During Thermal Processing 31.3 Extrusion Processing for Starch 51.3.1 Phase Transition During Extrusion 51.3.2 Rheological Behaviors of Starch-Based Materials 61.4 Improving Mechanical Properties by Reinforcement 71.4.1 Reinforcement by Natural Fillers 71.4.2 Starch-Based Nanocomposites 91.4.3 Self-Reinforced Composites 111.4.4 Blending with Other Natural Polymers 121.4.5 Functionalized Composites 141.5 Reducing Moisture Sensitivity by Coating 151.6 Applications in Packaging 161.7 Summary and Future Work 17Acknowledgments 19References 192 Protein-Based Materials for Packaging Applications 27V. G. Martins, V. P. Romani, P. C. Martins, and D. Nogueira2.1 Introduction 272.2 Proteins 282.3 Protein Films for Food Packaging 292.4 Film Production Processes 322.5 Characterization of Films 342.5.1 Mechanical Properties 342.5.2 Barrier Properties 352.5.3 Structural Properties 362.5.4 Thermal and Optical Properties 372.5.5 Biodegradability of Polymers 372.6 Protein Films Application 382.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives 412.8 Conclusions 43References 433 Protein-Based Biodegradable Polymer: From Sources to Innovative Sustainable Materials for Packaging Applications 51Huafeng Tian, Yunxuan Weng, Rakesh Kumar, Priya Rani, and Gaiping Guo3.1 Introduction 513.2 Forms of Packaging Materials 523.3 Commercially Available Proteinous Material for Packaging 523.4 Preparation Methods for Protein-Based Materials for Different Packaging Applications 533.5 Properties of Protein-Based Packaging Materials 543.5.1 Mechanical Properties 543.5.2 Moisture Resistance 563.5.3 Barrier Properties 563.5.4 Biodegradability 573.5.5 Antimicrobial Properties 583.6 Nanomaterials Incorporated Protein-Based Packaging Materials 583.6.1 Protein/Inorganic Filler Nanocomposites 583.6.2 Protein/Organic Filler Nanocomposites 603.7 Protein-Based Blends as Packaging Materials 613.7.1 Protein/Natural Polymer Blends 613.7.2 Protein/Synthetic Biopolymeric Blends 623.8 Conclusions 63References 634 Chitin/Chitosan Based Films for Packaging Applications 69J.M. Moura, B.S. Farias, T.R.S. Cadaval, and L.A.A. Pinto4.1 Introduction 694.2 Chitin and Chitosan 704.3 Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Chitosan-Based Films 724.3.1 Mechanical and Barrier Properties 724.3.2 Antimicrobial Properties 784.3.3 Antioxidant Characteristics 794.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 80References 815 Perspectives for Chitin/Chitosan Based Films as Active Packaging Systems on a Food Product 85Ewelina Jamróz, Piotr Kulawik, and Fatih Özogul5.1 Introduction 855.2 The Effect of the Incorporation of Chitosan on the Properties of Films 865.3 Blends of Chitosan and Other Biopolymers 885.4 Characterization of Chitosan Films with Nanofillers 895.5 Preparation of Chitosan Films with Active Compounds 925.6 Chitosan-Based Films as Packaging Material Systems 935.7 Conclusions 98References 996 Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite Coating for Food Packaging Applications 105Dr. M. Vishnuvarthanan6.1 Introduction 1056.2 Polymers in Food Packaging 1066.3 Surface Modification of Polymers 1066.4 Antimicrobial Packaging 1066.5 Biopolymers 1066.6 Pectin 1076.7 Bionanocomposites 1076.8 Nanoclay 1076.9 Silver Nanoparticles 1076.10 Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite Coating 1086.10.1 Preparation and Coating of Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite 1086.10.2 Tensile Strength 1096.10.3 Oxygen Transmission Rate 1106.10.4 Water Vapor Transmission Rate 1116.10.5 Surface Color and Opacity 1126.10.6 Contact Angle Analysis 1136.10.7 Coating Adhesion Strength 1146.10.8 Antimicrobial Properties 1156.11 Conclusions 116References 1167 Nanocomposite: Potential Nanofiller for Food Packaging Applications 119Rafeeya Shams, Qurat ul eain Hyder Rizvi, Aamir Hussain Dar, Ishrat Majid, and Shafat Khan7.1 Introduction 1197.2 Nanofillers 1207.2.1 Nanoclays 1217.2.2 Silica (SiO2) 1227.2.3 Silver 1227.2.4 Gold 1237.2.5 Metal Oxide 1237.2.6 Zinc Oxide 1237.2.7 Titanium Dioxide 1247.2.8 Copper Oxide 1247.2.9 Chitosan Nanostructures 1247.2.10 Carbon Nanotubes 1257.3 Nanocomposites in Active Packaging 1257.4 Nanocomposites in Intelligent Packaging 1267.5 Nanomaterial Migration into the Food Matrix 1267.6 Commercial Aspects of Food Packaging 1277.7 Conclusion and Future Trends 127References 1288 Nanocellulose Reinforced Polypropylene and Polyethylene Composite for Packaging Application 133Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, Tengku Arisyah Tengku Yasim-Anuar, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, Mohd Idham Hakimi, Syed Umar Faruq Syed Najmuddin, and Mohd Azwan Jenol8.1 Introduction 1338.2 Plastic Packaging 1358.3 Nanocellulose 1368.4 Polypropylene and Polyethylene Nanocellulose Composites 1378.5 Compatibility Between Nanocellulose with Polyethylene and Polypropylene Matrices 1378.6 Processing Method of PP- and PE-Nanocellulose Composites 1398.6.1 Solvent Casting 1408.6.2 Melt Compounding 1408.6.3 Injection and Compression Molding 1418.6.4 One-Pot 1418.7 Factors Influencing the Performance of the PP- and PE-Nanocellulose Composites 1428.7.1 Drying Effect of Nanocellulose 1438.7.2 Chemical Composition of Nanocellulose 1438.8 Characteristics of the PP- and PE- Nanocellulose Composites 1438.9 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 146References 1469 Green Food Packaging from Nanocellulose-Based Composite Materials 151Abdel Rehim M.H.9.1 Introduction 1519.2 Synthesis of Cellulose Nanostructures 1529.3 Modification of Nanocellulose 1539.4 Properties of Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites 1549.5 Active Packaging Material 1569.6 Nanocellulose in Smart Packaging 1579.7 Future Trends and Conclusions 158References 15910 Nanocellulose Polylactide-Based Composite Films for Packaging Applications 165Dogan Arslan, Emre Vatansever, and Mohammadreza Nofar10.1 Introduction 16510.2 Polylactide 16710.3 Nanocellulose Classification 16810.4 PLA/Nanocellulose Nanocomposites 17110.4.1 Processing 17110.4.2 Mechanical Properties 17310.4.3 Crystallization Behavior 17910.4.4 Barrier Properties 18110.4.5 Applications 18410.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 184References 18511 Nanocellulose Composite Films for Packaging Applications 193Latifah Jasmani, Sharmiza Adnan, Z.M.A. Ainun, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas11.1 Introduction 19311.2 Preparation of Nanocellulose 19411.2.1 Nanocrystalline Cellulose 19511.2.2 Nanofibrillated Cellulose 19611.2.3 Bacterial Cellulose 19611.3 Nanocellulose Barrier Property 19611.4 Nanocellulose in Films 19711.4.1 Extrusion of Nanocellulose Composite 19711.4.2 Casting of Nanocellulose Films 19811.4.3 Filtration of Nanocellulose Composite 19911.4.4 Coating 20011.5 Nanocellulose Film in Packaging 20011.5.1 Food and Beverage Industry 20111.5.2 Medicine and Pharmaceuticals 20111.6 Conclusion 202References 20212 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 205Rushdan Ibrahim, S.M Sapuan, R.A Ilyas, and M.S.N. Atikah12.1 Introduction 20512.2 Selling Rice Straw 20612.3 Selling Pulp 20712.4 Selling Pulp Molded Products 21112.5 Selling Paper 21412.6 Cost of Commercialization of Products from Rice Straw 21812.7 Conclusions 220References 22213 Sustainable Paper-Based Packaging 225Latifah Jasmani, Z.M.A. Ainun, Sharmiza Adnan, Rushdan Ibrahim, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas13.1 Introduction 22513.2 Types of Raw Material for Paper-Based Packaging 22713.2.1 Source of Fiber 22713.2.2 Types of Pulp 23013.2.2.1 Chemical Pulp 23013.2.2.2 Mechanical Pulp 23113.2.2.3 Recovered Paper 23113.2.2.4 Non-fiber Material 23213.3 Papermaking 23213.4 Types of Paper-Based Packaging 23213.4.1 Boxes 23413.4.1.1 Folding Cartons 23413.4.1.2 Rigid Boxes 23413.4.1.3 Corrugated Boxes 23513.4.1.4 Molded Pulp Containers 23513.4.2 Paper Sheet 23513.4.2.1 Greaseproof Paper 23513.4.2.2 Glassine Paper 23613.4.2.3 Vegetable Parchment 23713.4.2.4 Waxed Paper 23813.4.2.5 Decorative Paper 23913.4.3 Using Types of Paper-Based Packaging 23913.4.3.1 Food and Beverages Industries 23913.4.3.2 Transportation Industries 24013.5 Packaging Requirement for Paper-Based Packaging 24213.5.1 Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Paper 24213.5.2 Other Requirements 242References 24314 Properties and Food Packaging Application of Poly-(Lactic) Acid 245N.H Sari, S. Suteja, S.M Sapuan, and R.A Ilyas14.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces 24514.2 Properties of PLA 24614.2.1 Melt and Transition Temperature 24614.2.2 Crystallinity 24714.3 Mechanical 25014.3.1 Physical 25114.3.2 Thermal Properties 25314.3.3 Optical 25414.3.4 Flame Retardancy 25414.3.5 Water Resistance 25514.3.6 Grease Permeability 25614.3.7 Water Vapor Permeability (WVP) 25614.3.8 Biodegradation Properties as a Packaging 25614.4 Food Packaging Application of PLA 25714.5 Conclusions 260References 26015 Poly(Lactic) Acid Modified Films for Packaging Applications 265Jissy Jacob, Sabu Thomas, and Sravanthi Loganathan15.1 Introduction 26515.2 Biopolymers 26615.2.1 Classification of Biopolymers 26715.2.2 Poly(Lactic) Acid (PLA) 26715.3 Modified PLA Films 26715.3.1 PLA/Clay Composites 26715.3.2 PLA/Carbonaceous Composites 27015.3.3 PLA/Bio Filler Composites 27115.3.4 PLA-Mesoporous Silica Composites 27415.4 Conclusions 275References 27616 Polyhydroxyalkanoates for Packaging Application 279Tengku Arisyah Tengku Yasim-Anuar, Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, Mohd Azwan Jenol, Nur Amira Mamat Razali, Mohd Idham Hakimi, Nur Farisha Abd Rahim, and Syed Umar Faruq Syed Najmuddin16.1 Introduction 27916.2 Biopolymers 28116.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 28216.3.1 Characteristic of PHAs 28216.3.2 Biodegradability and Enzymatic Degradability of PHAs 28416.3.3 Application of PHAs 28416.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Based Composites for Packaging Applications 28616.5 Chemical Recycling of PHAs 28716.5.1 Pyrolysis of PHAs 28716.5.2 Application of Crotonic Acid, 2-Pentenoic Acid, and its Derivatives 28816.6 Future Direction and Recommendations 289References 29017 Manufacturing of Biobased Packaging Materials 295Min Min Aung, Hiroshi Uyama, Marwah Rayung, Lu Lu Taung Mai, Moe Tin Khaing, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas17.1 Introduction 29517.2 Bio-Based Packaging Materials 29617.3 Food Packaging Materials 29717.3.1 Biomass Plastic in Food Packaging 29817.3.1.1 Eucommia Elastomer 30017.3.1.2 Biopolyurethane Using Vegetable Oils 30217.4 Properties of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 30517.4.1 Biodegradable Plastic 30517.4.2 Biodegradable Polyester Composite 30917.5 Manufacturing Food Applications 31217.6 Food Industry and Bio-Based Materials Demand 31417.7 Conclusions and Remarks 315Acknowledgments 316References 31618 Bioplastics: An Introduction to the Role of Eco-Friendly Alternative Plastics in Sustainable Packaging 319Usman Lawal and Ravi Babu Valapa18.1 Introduction 31918.2 Important Biopolymers for Food Packaging 32118.2.1 Starch 32218.2.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 32218.2.3 Cellulose 32318.2.4 Chitosan 32318.2.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 32418.3 Important Properties of Biopolymers for Food Packaging Applications 32518.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Biopolymers 32518.3.2 Barrier Property 32518.3.3 Antimicrobial Properties 32718.3.4 Optical Properties 32818.3.5 Combination with Plasticizers 32818.4 Biopolymers and the Future of Food Packaging 32918.5 Conclusions 330Acknowledgment 330References 33019 Bioplastics: The Future of Sustainable Biodegradable Food Packaging 335S. Ayu Rafiqah, A Khalina, Khairul Zaman, ISMA Tawakkal, A.S Harmaen, and N Mohd Nurrazi19.1 Introduction 33519.2 Types of Plastic for Food Packaging 33619.2.1 Biopolymer 33719.2.2 Biodegradable Polymer – Polybutylene Succinate 33819.2.3 Biodegradable Polymer – Polylactic Acid 34019.3 Food Packaging 34119.3.1 Starch-Based Bioplastic Packaging 34319.3.2 Oxygen Transmission Rate 34419.3.3 Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) 34519.4 Active Food Packaging 34619.4.1 Antimicrobial Food Packaging 347References 34820 Renewable Sources for Packaging Materials 353R.A Ilyas, S.M Sapuan, H.A Aisyah, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, H.N. Salwa, Min Min Aung, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, L.N. Megashah, and Z.M.A. Ainun20.1 Introduction 35420.2 Packaging Materials from Bio-based Materials 35520.3 Development of Bio-based Packages 35620.3.1 Polycarbonates from Sugars and Carbon Dioxide 35620.3.2 Chitosan 35920.3.3 Plant Cell Wall Biopolymers 35920.3.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate 35920.3.5 Polylactic Acid 35920.3.6 Starch 36020.3.7 Protein 36020.3.8 Chitin and Chitosan 36020.4 Decomposition of Biodegradable Plastics 36120.5 Renewable Energy Production Using Biobased Packaging Waste 36320.6 Cost of Bio-based Materials 36320.7 Life Cycle Assessment 36420.8 Social Consumption Behavior 36420.9 Conclusions 365Acknowledgment 365References 36521 Environmental Advantages and Challenges of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 371R.A Ilyas, S.M. Sapuan, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, M.R.M. Asyraf, Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and Z.M.A. Ainun21.1 Introduction 37221.2 Advantages of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 37321.2.1 Reduction of Waste 37321.2.2 Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emission 37321.2.3 Rapid Decomposition 37321.2.4 Sustainability 37421.2.5 New Marketing Opportunities and Export Industries 37421.3 Challenges of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 37521.3.1 Inappropriate Regulations 37521.3.2 Lack of Composting Facilities 37521.3.3 Manufacturing Costs 37621.4 Conclusions 377References 37722 Life Cycle Assessment of Bio-Based Packaging Products 381H.N. Salwa, S.M. Sapuan, M.T. Mastura, M.Y.M Zuhri, and R.A. Ilyas22.1 Packaging: Function and Materials 38122.1.1 Bio-Based Materials for Packaging Applications 38322.1.2 Packaging Product Life Cycle 38522.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 39022.2.1 Background of LCA 39022.2.2 LCA Approaches 39122.3 LCA Goal and Scope (Definition of a Functional Unit and System Boundary) 39222.3.1 Functional Unit (FU) 39222.3.2 System Boundary 39322.4 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) 39622.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 39822.6 Life Cycle Results Interpretation 40222.7 Conclusions 407Acknowledgments 408References 40823 Reuse and Recycle of Biobased Packaging Products 413R.A. Ilyas, S.M. Sapuan, F.A. Sabaruddin, M.S.N. Atikah, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.R.M. Asyraf, M.R.M. Huzaifah, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and Z.M.A. Ainun23.1 Introduction 41323.2 Waste Management Efficiency for Bioplastics 41723.3 Prevention and Reduction 41823.4 Reuse Bio-Based Products 41823.5 Packaging Material Recycling 41823.6 Mechanical Recycling Process 42123.7 Organic Recycling or Composting 42123.8 Impact of Aging and Recycling on the Quality of Plastic Materials 42123.9 Conclusions 422References 42324 Socioeconomic Impact of Bio-Based Packaging Bags 427M. Chandrasekar, T. Senthil Muthu Kumar, K. Senthilkumar, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, M.R. Ishak, R.M. Shahroze, and Suchart Siengchin24.1 Introduction 42724.2 Socioeconomic Factors Influencing the Bioplastic-Based Packaging Materials 42824.2.1 Interest from the Investors 42824.2.1.1 Market Projection on the Production of Bioplastic Materials 42924.2.2 Commercial Producers of Bio-Based Packaging Materials and Scope of Application 43024.2.3 Policy Making and Support from the Government 43124.2.4 Consumer Perception and Acceptance by Consumers (According to Countries) 43224.2.5 Challenges for Bioplastics in Packaging Applications 43224.2.5.1 Material Performance 43224.2.5.2 Recycling 43224.3 Future Scope 43324.4 Conclusion 434References 43425 The Assessment of Supply Chains, Business Strategies, and Markets in Biodegradable Food Packaging 437K. Norfaryanti, Z.M.A. Ainun, and S. Zaiton25.1 The Context of Bio-Packaging 43725.2 Types of Biodegradable Food Packaging and Its Characteristics 43825.2.1 Active Packaging 43925.2.2 Intelligent Packaging 43925.2.3 Biodegradable Packaging 44025.3 Biodegradable Food Packaging Supply/Value Chain 44025.4 Business Strategies and Market Assessment 44225.4.1 Strategy and Market Projection 44325.4.2 Biodegradable Food Packaging Trends 44725.5 Conclusion 448Acknowledgments 448References 44826 The Market for Bio-Based Packaging: Consumers’ Perceptions and Preferences Regarding Bio-Based Packaging 453Carsten Herbes26.1 Introduction: The Need for Bio-Based Packaging 45326.2 Bio-Based Packaging: An Overview 45526.3 Consumer Perception of Bio-Based Plastics 45626.4 Consumer Perception of Bio-Based Packaging 45826.5 Consumer Identification of Bio-Based Packaging 46026.6 Industry Perspectives 46026.7 Conclusion: Problems and Potential Solutions 460References 46227 Regulations for Food Packaging Materials 467R.A Ilyas, S.M Sapuan, L.N. Megashah, Rushdan. Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, Z.M.A. Ainun, Min Min Aung, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and C.H. Lee27.1 Introduction 46827.2 Asia 47027.2.1 Malaysia 47027.2.2 Japan 47227.2.3 China 47327.2.4 India 47427.3 Europe 47527.4 North America and South America 47927.4.1 History of Formal Food Packaging Regulation in the US 48127.4.2 US Food Packaging Regulations 48227.4.3 Environmental Impact of Materials Used in Food Packaging 48327.4.4 Rigid Plastic Containers 48327.4.5 Regulations 48327.4.6 The US Exposure Approach to FCM Legislation 48527.4.7 The Regulatory Enforcement Process in the United States 48527.4.8 A Practical Approach to the US Food Contact Materials Regulatory Regime 48627.5 Australia and Africa 48727.5.1 Regulations for Food Packaging Materials in Australia 48727.5.2 Reducing Environmental Harm in the Natural Environment 48827.6 Regulation for Food Packaging Materials in Africa 48827.6.1 Foods Based on Cereals and Wheat Production 48827.6.2 Beers 48827.6.3 Food Packaging; Reuse, Reduce, and Recycle 49027.7 Conclusion 491References 491Index 495