Theory and Practice of Aircraft Performance

Ajoy Kumar Kundu graduated with Mechanical Engineering degree from Jadavpur University, India, followed by studying in the United Kingdom (Cranfield University and Queen's University Belfast) and in the United States of America (University of Michigan and Stanford University). His professional experience spans more than thirty years in the aircraft industries and nearly 20 years in academia. In India, he was Professor at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur; and the Chief Designer at the Hindustan Aeronautics, Bangalore. In North America, he served as Research Engineer for the Boeing Aircraft Company, Renton and as Intermediate Engineer for Canadair Ltd. His aeronautical engineering career began in the United Kingdom with Short Brothers and Harland Ltd., retiring from Bombardier Aerospace-Belfast, as Assistant Chief Aerodynamicist. He is currently associated with Queen's University Belfast. He has authored the book title Aircraft Design published by Cambridge University Press. He held British, Canadian and Indian Private Pilot's License. He is a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society and the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, UK.Professor Mark Price is the Pro-Vice-Chancellor for the Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences at Queen’s University Belfast. Formerly he was the Head of School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering having progressed through his academic career as a Professor of Aeronautics teaching aircraft structures and design, and leading a research team in design and manufacturing. He graduated in 1987 with a 1st Class Honours degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Queen's University Belfast before taking up a post as a stress engineer in Bombardier Aerospace. He returned later to QUB to undertake a PhD in Mechanical Engineering after which he joined TranscenData Europe as a software engineer and project manager to implement his research in their product CADFix. In 1998 he returned to QUB lecturing in aircraft structures and design. With a strong focus on design applications and integrated performance and cost models, including manufacturing processing effects in design simulations, he received the 2006 Thomas Hawksley medal from the IMechE. He has published over 200 articles and supervised 20 PhDs to completion.   Mark is a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society and the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, UK.David Riordan commenced employment with Short Brothers PLC in 1978 as an Undergraduate Apprentice. He then graduated in 1982 from Queen's University Belfast, with a 1st Class Honours degree in Mechanical Engineering. In 1986 he attained an MSc in Advanced Manufacturing Technology from the Cranfield Institute of Technology, England.David was appointed Chief Technical Engineer during 2002; in which position provides leadership at the Bombardier Belfast site for all activities associated with the technical engineering fields of aerodynamics, thermodynamics, fire safety and noise; mechanical systems, electrical systems, reliability & safety. David is also functionally responsible for the department of Airworthiness and Engineering Quality.Responsibilities cover all products associated with Bombardier at Belfast, including metallic fuselage barrels (business jet and regional aircraft applications); composite aerostructures (including the composite wing for the Bombardier CSeries aircraft) and engine nacelles (including the complete nacelle system for the PW1400G-JM propulsion system powering the IRKUT MC-21 aircraft).

• Preface xixSeries Preface xxiRoad Map of the Book xxiiiAcknowledgements xxviiNomenclature xxxiIntroduction 11.1 Overview 11.2 Brief Historical Background 11.2.1 Flight in Mythology 11.2.2 Fifteenth to Nineteenth Centuries 11.2.3 From 1900 to World War I (1914) 31.2.4 World War I (1914–1918) 41.2.5 The Inter‐War Period: the Golden Age (1918–1939) 71.2.6 World War II (1939–1945) 71.2.7 Post World War II 81.3 Current Aircraft Design Status 81.3.1 Current Civil Aircraft Trends 91.3.2 Current Military Aircraft Trends 101.4 Future Trends 111.4.1 Trends in Civil Aircraft 111.4.2 Trends in Military Aircraft 131.4.3 Forces and Drivers 141.5 Airworthiness Requirements 141.6 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels 161.7 Market Survey 171.8 Typical Design Process 191.8.1 Four Phases of Aircraft Design 191.9 Classroom Learning Process 231.10 Cost Implications 251.11 Units and Dimensions 261.12 Use of Semi‐empirical Relations and Graphs 261.13 How Do Aircraft Fly? 261.13.1 Classification of Flight Mechanics 271.14 Anatomy of Aircraft 271.14.1 Comparison between Civil and Military Design Requirements 301.15 Aircraft Motion and Forces 301.15.1 Motion – Kinematics 311.15.2 Forces – Kinetics 331.15.3 Aerodynamic Parameters – Lift, Drag and Pitching Moment 341.15.4 Basic Controls – Sign Convention 34References 362 Aerodynamic and Aircraft Design Considerations 372.1 Overview 372.2 Introduction 372.3 Atmosphere 392.3.1 Hydrostatic Equations and Standard Atmosphere 392.3.2 Non‐standard/Off‐standard Atmosphere 472.3.3 Altitude Definitions – Density Altitude (Off‐standard) 482.3.4 Humidity Effects 502.3.5 Greenhouse Gases Effect 502.4 Airflow Behaviour: Laminar and Turbulent 512.4.1 Flow Past an Aerofoil 552.5 Aerofoil 562.5.1 Subsonic Aerofoil 572.5.2 Supersonic Aerofoil 642.6 Generation of Lift 642.6.1 Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre 662.6.2 Relation between Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre 682.7 Types of Stall 712.7.1 Buffet 712.8 Comparison of Three NACA Aerofoils 722.9 High‐Lift Devices 732.10 Transonic Effects – Area Rule 742.10.1 Compressibility Correction 752.11 Wing Aerodynamics 762.11.1 Induced Drag and Total Aircraft Drag 792.12 Aspect Ratio Correction of 2D‐Aerofoil Characteristics for 3D‐Finite Wing 792.13 Wing Definitions 812.13.1 Planform Area, S W 812.13.2 Wing Aspect Ratio 822.13.3 Wing‐Sweep Angle 822.13.4 Wing Root (c root) and Tip (c tip) Chords 822.13.5 Wing‐Taper Ratio, λ 822.13.6 Wing Twist 822.13.7 High/Low Wing 832.13.8 Dihedral/Anhedral Angles 832.14 Mean Aerodynamic Chord 842.15 Compressibility Effect: Wing Sweep 862.16 Wing‐Stall Pattern and Wing Twist 872.17 Influence of Wing Area and Span on Aerodynamics 882.17.1 The Square‐Cube Law 882.17.2 Aircraft Wetted Area (A W) versus Wing Planform Area (S W)89 2.17.3 Additional Wing Surface Vortex Lift – Strake/Canard 902.17.4 Additional Surfaces on Wing – Flaps/Slats and High‐Lift Devices 912.17.5 Other Additional Surfaces on Wing 912.18 Empennage 922.18.1 Tail‐arm 952.18.2 Horizontal Tail (H‐Tail) 952.18.3 Vertical Tail (V‐Tail) 962.18.4 Tail‐Volume Coefficients 962.19 Fuselage 982.19.1 Fuselage Axis/Zero‐Reference Plane 982.19.2 Fuselage Length, L fus 982.19.3 Fineness Ratio, FR 992.19.4 Fuselage Upsweep Angle 992.19.5 Fuselage Closure Angle 992.19.6 Front Fuselage Closure Length, L f 992.19.7 Aft Fuselage Closure Length, L a 992.19.8 Mid‐Fuselage Constant Cross‐Section length, l m 992.19.9 Fuselage Height, H 992.19.10 Fuselage Width, W 1002.19.11 Average Diameter, D ave 1002.20 Nacelle and Intake 1002.20.1 Large Commercial/Military Logistic and Old Bombers Nacelle Group 1012.20.2 Small Civil Aircraft Nacelle Position 1032.20.3 Intake/Nacelle Group (Military Aircraft) 1042.20.4 Futuristic Aircraft Nacelle Positions 1062.21 Speed Brakes and Dive Brakes 106References 1063 Air Data Measuring Instruments, Systems and Parameters 1093.1 Overview 1093.2 Introduction 1093.3 Aircraft Speed 1103.3.1 Definitions Related to Aircraft Velocity 1113.3.2 Theory Related to Computing Aircraft Velocity 1123.3.3 Aircraft Speed in Flight Deck Instruments 1163.3.4 Atmosphere with Wind Speed (Non‐zero Wind) 1173.3.5 Calibrated Airspeed 1183.3.6 Compressibility Correction (∆V c ) 1203.3.7 Other Position Error Corrections 1223.4 Air Data Instruments 1223.4.1 Altitude Measurement – Altimeter 1233.4.2 Airspeed Measuring Instrument – Pitot‐Static Tube 1253.4.3 Angle‐of‐Attack Probe 1263.4.4 Vertical Speed Indicator 1263.4.5 Temperature Measurement 1273.4.6 Turn‐Slip Indicator 1273.5 Aircraft Flight‐Deck (Cockpit) Layout 1283.5.1 Multifunctional Displays and Electronic Flight Information Systems 1293.5.2 Combat Aircraft Flight Deck 1313.5.3 Head‐Up Display (HUD) 1323.6 Aircraft Mass (Weights) and Centre of Gravity 1333.6.1 Aircraft Mass (Weights) Breakdown 1333.6.2 Desirable CG Position 1343.6.3 Weights Summary – Civil Aircraft 1363.6.4 CG Determination – Civil Aircraft 1373.6.5 Bizjet Aircraft CG Location – Classroom Example 1383.6.6 Weights Summary – Military Aircraft 1383.6.7 CG Determination – Military Aircraft 1383.6.8 Classroom Worked Example – Military AJT CG Location 1383.7 Noise Emissions 1413.7.1 Airworthiness Requirements 1423.7.2 Summary 1453.8 Engine‐Exhaust Emissions 1453.9 Aircraft Systems 1463.9.1 Aircraft Control System 1463.9.2 ECS: Cabin Pressurization and Air‐Conditioning 1483.9.3 Oxygen Supply 1493.9.4 Anti‐icing, De‐icing, Defogging and Rain Removal System 1493.10 Low Observable (LO) Aircraft Configuration 1503.10.1 Heat Signature 1503.10.2 Radar Signature 150References 1524 Equations of Motion for a Flat Stationary Earth 1534.1 Overview 1534.2 Introduction 1544.3 Definitions of Frames of Reference (Flat Stationary E arth) and Nomenclature Used 1544.3.1 Notation and Symbols Used in this Chapter 1574.4 Eulerian Angles 1584.4.1 Transformation of Eulerian Angles 1594.5 Simplified Equations of Motion for a Flat Stationary Earth 1614.5.1 Important Aerodynamic Angles 1614.5.2 In Pitch Plane (Vertical XZ Plane) 1624.5.3 In Yaw Plane (Horizontal Plane) – Coordinated Turn 1644.5.4 In Pitch‐Yaw Plane – Coordinated Climb‐Turn (Helical Trajectory) 1654.5.5 Discussion on Turn 166Reference 1675 Aircraft Load 1695.1 Overview 1695.2 Introduction 1695.2.1 Buffet 1705.2.2 Flutter 1705.3 Flight Manoeuvres 1715.3.1 Pitch Plane (X‐Z) Manoeuvre 1715.3.2 Roll Plane (Y‐Z) Manoeuvre 1715.3.3 Yaw Plane (Y‐X) Manoeuvre 1715.4 Aircraft Loads 1715.5 Theory and Definitions 1725.5.1 Load Factor, n 1725.6 Limits – Loads and Speeds 1735.6.1 Maximum Limit of Load Factor 1745.7 V‐n Diagram174 5.7.1 Speed Limits 1755.7.2 Extreme Points of the V‐n Diagram 1755.7.3 Low Speed Limit 1775.7.4 Manoeuvre Envelope Construction 1785.7.5 High Speed Limit 1795.8 Gust Envelope 1795.8.1 Gust Load Equations 1805.8.2 Gust Envelope Construction 182Reference 1836 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Performance 1856.1 Overview 1856.2 Introduction 1856.3 Static and Dynamic Stability 1866.3.1 Longitudinal Stability – Pitch Plane (Pitch Moment, M)1886.3.2 Directional Stability – Yaw Plane (Yaw Moment, N)1886.3.3 Lateral Stability – Roll Plane (Roll Moment, L)189 6.4 Theory 1926.4.1 Pitch Plane 1926.4.2 Yaw Plane 1956.4.3 Roll Plane 1966.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients197 6.6 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design 1986.6.1 Short‐Period Oscillation and Phugoid Motion 1986.6.2 Directional/Lateral Modes of Motion 2006.7 Spinning 2026.8 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability 2036.8.1 Civil Aircraft 2036.8.2 Military Aircraft – Non‐linear Effects 2046.8.3 Active Control Technology (ACT) – Fly‐by‐Wire 205References 2077 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration 2097.1 Overview 2097.2 Background 2097.3 Definitions 2147.4 Air‐Breathing Aircraft Engine Types 2157.4.1 Simple Straight‐through Turbojets 2157.4.2 Turbofan – Bypass Engine 2167.4.3 Afterburner Jet Engines 2167.4.4 Turboprop Engines 2187.4.5 Piston Engines 2187.5 Simplified Representation of Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle 2197.6 Formulation/Theory – Isentropic Case 2217.6.1 Simple Straight‐through Turbojets 2217.6.2 Bypass Turbofan Engines 2227.6.3 Afterburner Jet Engines 2247.6.4 Turboprop Engines 2267.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft – Installation Effects 2267.7.1 Subsonic Civil Aircraft Nacelle and Engine Installation 2277.7.2 Turboprop Integration to Aircraft 2297.7.3 Combat Aircraft Engine Installation 2307.8 Intake/Nozzle Design 2317.8.1 Civil Aircraft Intake Design 2317.8.2 Military Aircraft Intake Design 2327.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser 2337.9.1 Civil Aircraft Exhaust Nozzles 2337.9.2 Military Aircraft TR Application and Exhaust Nozzles 2337.10 Propeller 2347.10.1 Propeller‐Related Definitions 2367.10.2 Propeller Theory 2377.10.3 Propeller Performance – Practical Engineering Applications 2437.10.4 Propeller Performance – Three‐ to Four‐Bladed 246References 2468 Aircraft Power Plant Performance 2478.1 Overview 2478.2 Introduction 2488.2.1 Engine Performance Ratings 2488.2.2 Turbofan Engine Parameters 2498.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Civil Aircraft 2508.3.1 Turbofans with BPR around 4 2528.3.2 Turbofans with BPR around 5–6 2528.4 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Military Aircraft 2548.5 Uninstalled Turboprop Engine Performance Data 2558.5.1 Typical Turboprop Performance 2578.6 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft 2578.6.1 Turbofan Engine (Smaller Engines for Bizjets – BPR ≈ 4)257 8.6.2 Turbofans with BPR around 5–6 (Larger Jets) 2608.6.3 Military Turbofan (Very Low BPR)260 8.7 Installed Turboprop Performance Data 2618.7.1 Typical Turboprop Performance 2618.7.2 Propeller Performance – Worked Example 2628.8 Piston Engine 2648.9 Engine Performance Grid 2678.9.1 Installed Maximum Climb Rating (TFE 731‐20 Class Turbofan) 2698.9.2 Maximum Cruise Rating (TFE731‐20 Class Turbofan) 2708.10 Some Turbofan Data 272Reference 2739 Aircraft Drag 2759.1 Overview 2759.2 Introduction 2759.3 Parasite Drag Definition 2779.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic) 2789.5 Aircraft Drag Formulation 2799.6 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology 2819.7 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology 2819.7.1 Geometric Parameters, Reynolds Number and Basic C F Determination 2829.7.2 Computation of Wetted Area 2839.7.3 Stepwise Approach to Computing Minimum Parasite Drag 2839.8 Semi‐Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft Component Parasite Drag 2849.8.1 Fuselage 2849.8.2 Wing, Empennage, Pylons and Winglets 2879.8.3 Nacelle Drag 2899.8.4 Excrescence Drag 2939.8.5 Miscellaneous Parasite Drags 2949.9 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections 2959.10 Minimum Parasite Drag 2969.11 ΔCDp Estimation 2969.12 Subsonic Wave Drag 2969.13 Total Aircraft Drag 2989.14 Low‐Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing 2989.14.1 High‐Lift Device Drag 2989.14.2 Dive Brakes and Spoilers Drag 3029.14.3 Undercarriage Drag 3029.14.4 One‐Engine Inoperative Drag 3039.15 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft Drag 3049.16 Military Aircraft Drag 3049.17 Supersonic Drag 3059.18 Coursework Example – Civil Bizjet Aircraft 3069.18.1 Geometric and Performance Data 3069.18.2 Computation of Wetted Areas, Re and Basic C F 3099.18.3 Computation of 3D and Other Effects 3109.18.4 Summary of Parasite Drag 3149.18.5 ΔC DpEstimation 3149.18.6 Induced Drag 3149.18.7 Total Aircraft Drag at LRC 3149.19 Classroom Example – Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer) 3159.19.1 AJT Specifications 3179.19.2 CAS Variant Specifications 3189.19.3 Weights 3199.19.4 AJT Details 3199.20 Classroom Example – Turboprop Trainer 3199.20.1 TPT Specification 3209.20.2 TPT Details 3219.20.3 Component Parasite Drag Estimation 3229.21 Classroom Example – Supersonic Military Aircraft 3259.21.1 Geometric and Performance Data for the Vigilante RA‐C5 Aircraft 3259.21.2 Computation of Wetted Areas, Re and Basic C F 3269.21.3 Computation of 3D and Other Effects to Estimate Component C Dpmin 3279.21.4 Summary of Parasite Drag 329Estimation 3299.21.6 Induced Drag 3309.21.7 Supersonic Drag Estimation 3309.21.8 Total Aircraft Drag 3329.22 Drag Comparison 3329.23 Some Concluding Remarks and Reference Figures 334References 33810 Fundamentals of Mission Profile, Drag Polar and Aeroplane Grid 33910.1 Overview 33910.2 Introduction 34010.2.1 Evolution in Aircraft Performance Capabilities 34110.2.2 Levels of Aircraft Performance Analyses 34210.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload–Range) 34210.3.1 Civil Aircraft Classification and Mission Segments 34410.4 Military Aircraft Mission 34510.4.1 Military Aircraft Performance Segments 34710.5 Aircraft Flight Envelope 34910.6 Understanding Drag Polar 35110.6.1 Actual Drag Polar 35110.6.2 Parabolic Drag Polar 35110.6.3 Comparison between Actual and Parabolic Drag Polar 35210.7 Properties of Parabolic Drag Polar 35410.7.1 The Maximum and Minimum Conditions Applicable to Parabolic Drag Polar 35410.7.2 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft 35910.8 Classwork Examples of Parabolic Drag Polar 36310.8.1 Bizjet Market Specifications 36310.8.2 Turboprop Trainer Specifications 36310.8.3 Advanced Jet Trainer Specifications 36510.8.4 Comparison of Drag Polars 36610.9 Bizjet Actual Drag Polar 36610.9.1 Comparing Actual with Parabolic Drag Polar 36710.9.2 (Lift/Drag) and (Mach × Lift/Drag) Ratios 36810.9.3 Velocity at Minimum (D/V) 36910.9.4 (Lift/Drag) max , C L @ (L/D)max and V Dmin 36910.9.5 Turboprop Trainer (TPT) Example – Parabolic Drag Polar 37010.9.6 TPT (Lift/Drag) max , C L@(L/D)max and V Dmin 37010.9.7 TPT (ESHP) min_reqd and V Pmin 37110.9.8 Summary for TPT 37210.10 Aircraft and Engine Grid 37210.10.1 Aircraft and Engine Grid (Jet Aircraft) 37310.10.2 Classwork Example – Bizjet Aircraft and Engine Grid 37410.10.3 Aircraft and Engine Grid (Turboprop Trainer) 376References 37811 Takeoff and Landing 37911.1 Overview 37911.2 Introduction 38011.3 Airfield Definitions 38011.3.1 Stopway (SWY) and Clearway (CWY) 38111.3.2 Available Airfield Definitions 38211.3.3 Actual Field Length Definitions 38311.4 Generalized Takeoff Equations of Motion 38411.4.1 Ground Run Distance 38611.4.2 Time Taken for the Ground Run S G 38811.4.3 Flare Distance and Time Taken from V R to V 2 38811.4.4 Ground Effect 38911.5 Friction – Wheel Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficients 38911.6 Civil Transport Aircraft Takeoff 39111.6.1 Civil Aircraft Takeoff Segments 39111.6.2 Balanced Field Length (BFL) – Civil Aircraft 39511.6.3 Flare to 35 ft Height (Average Speed Method) 39611.7 Worked Example – Bizjet 39611.7.1 All‐Engine Takeoff 39811.7.2 Flare from V R to V 2 39811.7.3 Balanced Field Takeoff – One Engine Inoperative 39911.8 Takeoff Presentation 40411.8.1 Weight, Altitude and Temperature Limits 40511.9 Military Aircraft Takeoff 40511.10 Checking Takeoff Field Length (AJT)406 11.10.1 AJT Aircraft and Aerodynamic Data 40611.10.2 Takeoff with 8° Flap 40811.11 Civil Transport Aircraft Landing 40911.11.1 Airfield Definitions 40911.11.2 Landing Performance Equations 41211.11.3 Landing Field Length for the Bizjet 41411.11.4 Landing Field Length for the AJT 41611.12 Landing Presentation 41711.13 Approach Climb and Landing Climb 41811.14 Fuel Jettisoning 418References 41812 Climb and Descent Performance 41912.1 Overview 41912.2 Introduction 42012.2.1 Cabin Pressurization 42112.2.2 Aircraft Ceiling 42112.3 Climb Performance 42212.3.1 Climb Performance Equations of Motion 42312.3.2 Accelerated Climb 42312.3.3 Constant EAS Climb 42512.3.4 Constant Mach Climb 42712.3.5 Unaccelerated Climb 42812.4 Other Ways to Climb (Point Performance) – Civil Aircraft 42812.4.1 Maximum Rate of Climb and Maximum Climb Gradient 42812.4.2 Steepest Climb 43212.4.3 Economic Climb at Constant EAS 43312.4.4 Discussion on Climb Performance 43412.5 Classwork Example – Climb Performance (Bizjet) 43512.5.1 Takeoff Segments Climb Performance (Bizjet) 43512.5.2 En‐Route Climb Performance (Bizjet) 43912.5.3 Bizjet Climb Schedule 44012.6 Hodograph Plot 44012.6.1 Aircraft Ceiling 44312.7 Worked Example – Bizjet 44312.7.1 Bizjet Climb Rate at Normal Climb Speed Schedule 44312.7.2 Rate of Climb Performance versus Altitude 44412.7.3 Bizjet Ceiling 44412.8 Integrated Climb Performance – Computational Methodology 44412.8.1 Worked Example – Initial En‐Route Rate of Climb (Bizjet) 44612.8.2 Integrated Climb Performance (Bizjet) 44712.8.3 Turboprop Trainer Aircraft (TPT) 44712.9 Specific Excess Power (SEP) – High‐Energy Climb 44712.9.1 Specific Excess Power Characteristics 45012.9.2 Worked Example of SEP Characteristics (Bizjet) 45012.9.3 Example of AJT 45312.9.4 Supersonic Aircraft 45312.10 Descent Performance 45412.10.1 Glide 45712.10.2 Descent Properties 45812.10.3 Selection of Descent Speed 45812.11 Worked Example – Descent Performance (Bizjet) 45912.11.1 Limitation of Maximum Descent Rate 460References 46213 Cruise Performance and Endurance 46313.1 Overview 46313.2 Introduction 46413.2.1 Definitions 46513.3 Equations of Motion for the Cruise Segment 46613.4 Cruise Equations 46613.4.1 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft Cruise Equations 46713.4.2 Jet Engine Aircraft Cruise Equations 46913.5 Specific Range 47013.6 Worked Example (Bizjet) 47113.6.1 Aircraft and Engine Grid at Cruise Rating 47113.6.2 Specific Range Using Actual Drag Polar 47113.6.3 Specific Range and Range Factor 47313.7 Endurance Equations 47813.7.1 Propeller‐Driven (Turboprop) Aircraft 47913.7.2 Turbofan Powered Aircraft 48013.8 Options for Cruise Segment (Turbofan Only) 48113.9 Initial Maximum Cruise Speed (Bizjet) 48713.10 Worked Example of AJT – Military Aircraft 48813.10.1 To Compute the AJT Fuel Requirement 48813.10.2 To Check Maximum Speed 488References 48914 Aircraft Mission Profile 49114.1 Overview 49114.2 Introduction 49214.3 Payload‐Range Capability 49314.3.1 Reserve Fuel 49314.4 The Bizjet Payload‐Range Capability 49514.4.1 Long‐Range Cruise (LRC) at Constant Altitude 49614.4.2 High‐Speed Cruise (HSC) at Constant Altitude and Speed 50014.4.3 Discussion on Cruise Segment 50114.5 Endurance (Bizjet) 50214.6 Effect of Wind on Aircraft Mission Performance 50214.7 Engine Inoperative Situation at Climb and Cruise – Drift‐Down Procedure 50314.7.1 Engine Inoperative Situation at Climb 50314.7.2 Engine Inoperative Situation at Cruise (Figure 14.5)504 14.7.3 Point of No‐Return and Equal Time Point 50514.7.4 Engine Data 50514.7.5 Drift‐Down in Cruise 50514.8 Military Missions 50614.8.1 Military Training Mission Profile – Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) 50614.9 Flight Planning by the Operators 507References 50815 Manoeuvre Performance 50915.1 Overview 50915.2 Introduction 50915.3 Aircraft Turn 51015.3.1 In Horizontal (Yaw) Plane – Sustained Coordinated Turn 51015.3.2 Maximum Conditions for Turn in Horizontal Plane 51615.3.3 Minimum Radius of Turn in Horizontal Plane 51715.3.4 Turning in Vertical (Pitch) Plane 51715.3.5 In Pitch‐Yaw Plane – Climbing Turn in Helical Path 51915.4 Classwork Example – AJT 52015.5 Aerobatics Manoeuvre 52215.5.1 Lazy‐8 in Horizontal Plane 52315.5.2 Chandelle 52415.5.3 Slow Roll 52415.5.4 Hesitation Roll 52415.5.5 Barrel Roll 52515.5.6 Loop in Vertical Plane 52515.5.7 Immelmann – Roll at the Top in the Vertical Plane 52615.5.8 Stall Turn in Vertical Plane 52715.5.9 Cuban‐Eight in Vertical Plane 52715.5.10 Pugachev’s Cobra Movement 52815.6 Combat Manoeuvre 52815.6.1 Basic Fighter Manoeuvre 52815.7 Discussion on Turn 530References 53116 Aircraft Sizing and Engine Matching 53316.1 Overview 53316.2 Introduction 53416.3 Theory 53516.3.1 Sizing for Takeoff Field Length – Two Engines 53616.3.2 Sizing for the Initial Rate of Climb (All Engines Operating) 53916.3.3 Sizing to Meet Initial Cruise 54016.3.4 Sizing for Landing Distance 54016.4 Coursework Exercises: Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet) 54116.4.1 Takeoff 54116.4.2 Initial Climb 54216.4.3 Cruise 54216.4.4 Landing 54316.5 Sizing Analysis: Civil Aircraft (Bizjet) 54316.5.1 Variants in the Family of Aircraft Design 54416.5.2 Example: Civil Aircraft 54516.6 Classroom Exercise – Military Aircraft (AJT) 54616.6.1 Takeoff 54616.6.2 Initial Climb 54616.6.3 Cruise 54716.6.4 Landing 54816.6.5 Sizing for Turn Requirement of 4 g at Sea‐Level 54816.7 Sizing Analysis – Military Aircraft 55116.7.1 Single Seat Variants 55216.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses 55316.8.1 Civil Aircraft Sizing Studies 55316.8.2 Military Aircraft Sizing Studies 55416.9 Discussion 55416.9.1 The AJT 557References 55817 Operating Costs 55917.1 Overview 55917.2 Introduction 56017.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost 56117.3.1 Manufacturing Cost 56317.3.2 Operating Cost 56517.4 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC) 56717.4.1 Formulation to Estimate DOC 56917.4.2 Worked Example of DOC – Bizjet 57117.5 Aircraft Performance Management (APM) 57417.5.1 Methodology 57617.5.2 Discussion – the Broader Issues 577References 57718 Miscellaneous Considerations 57918.1 Overview 57918.2 Introduction 57918.3 History of the FAA 58018.3.1 Code of Federal Regulations 58218.3.2 The Role of Regulation 58218.4 Flight Test 58318.5 Contribution of the Ground Effect on Takeoff 58518.6 Flying in Adverse Environments 58618.6.1 Adverse Environment as Loss of Visibility 58618.6.2 Adverse Environment Due to Aerodynamic and Stability/Control Degradation 58718.7 Bird Strikes 59018.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards and Survivability 59118.9 Relevant Civil Aircraft Statistics 59118.9.1 Maximum Takeoff Mass versus Operational Empty Mass 59118.9.2 MTOM versus Fuel Load, M f 59218.9.3 MTOM versus Wing Area, S W 59318.9.4 MTOM versus Engine Power 59418.9.5 Empennage Area versus Wing Area 59518.9.6 Wing Loading versus Aircraft Span 59718.10 Extended Twin‐Engine Operation (ETOP) 59718.11 Flight and Human Physiology 598References 599Appendices Appendix A Conversions 601Appendix B International Standard Atmosphere Table 605Appendix C Fundamental Equations 609Appendix D Airbus 320 Class Case Study 615Appendix E Problem Sets 627Appendix F Aerofoil Data 647Index 655