Michael G. Pecht is a Chair Professor and the Director of the Center for Advanced Life Cycle Engineering (CALCE) at the University of Maryland, USA. He earned his PhD in Engineering Mechanics from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, and has authored over 30 books and more than 900 technical articles. He is a world-renowned expert in strategic planning, design, testing, and risk assessment of electronics and information systems.

• About the Editors, Authors, and Assistants xvPreface xxivAcknowledgement xxxiAcronyms xxxii1 Basics of Lithium-Ion Battery Technology 1Simin Peng, Yue Shen, Genkai Xia, Sahithi Maddipatla, Lingxi Kong, and Mohammed Saquib Khan1.1 Lithium-Ion Battery Cell Structure and Chemistry 11.2 Definitions of Key Battery Performance Metrics 31.3 Energy Density and Safety Analysis of Battery Materials 41.4 Cathode Materials: LCO, LMO, LFP, NMC, NCA, and Li-SPAN 51.4.1 Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) Battery 51.4.2 Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO) Battery 61.4.3 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) Battery 61.4.4 Lithium Nickel-Cobalt-Manganese Oxide (NMC) Battery 61.4.5 Lithium Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum Oxide (NCA) Battery 71.4.6 Lithium-Sulfurized Polyacrylonitrile (Li-SPAN) Battery 71.4.7 Summary of Cathode Materials 71.5 Anode Materials: Carbon-Based, Silicon-Based, Metal, and Alloying Anodes 81.5.1 Carbon-Based Materials 81.5.2 Silicon-Based Materials 91.5.3 Metal and Alloying Anodes 91.6 Electrolytes: Liquid and Solid Electrolytes 101.6.1 Liquid Electrolytes 111.6.2 Solid Electrolytes 111.6.3 Summary of Electrolyte Comparisons 121.7 Separators 121.7.1 Polyolefin Separators 151.7.2 Nonwoven Separators 151.7.3 Ceramic Separators 151.8 Future Trends in Batteries 161.9 Summary 17References 182 Global Suppliers of Battery Raw Materials 21Simin Peng, Guanwei Jiang, Yu Zhang, Yulun Zhang, Kianoush Naeli, Virendra Jadhav, Sanjay Tiku, Sahithi Maddipatla, and Lingxi Kong2.1 Introduction 212.2 Analysis of Raw Materials 222.3 Battery Cell Component Production 232.3.1 Positive Electrode Materials 242.3.2 Negative Electrode Materials 262.3.3 Electrolytes 282.3.4 Separators 302.3.5 Packaging Materials 322.4 Battery Management Systems 332.5 Summary 34References 353 Lithium-Ion Cell Manufacturing Process and Form Factors 39Simin Peng, Guanwei Jiang, Yuwei Nie, Yu Zhang, Lingxi Kong, and Sahithi Maddipatla3.1 Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) Structure Overview 393.2 Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing Process 393.2.1 Electrode Sheet Preparation 423.2.2 LIB Cell Assembly 443.2.3 Sealing of LIBs 453.2.4 Formation and Testing of LIBs 463.3 Advancements and Refinements in LIB Manufacturing 483.4 Summary 48References 494 The Lithium-Ion Battery Market and Key Cell Manufacturers 51Hayder Ali and Hassan Abbas Khan4.1 History of Lithium-Ion Battery Commercialization 524.2 Expansion of the Lithium-Ion Batteries Industry 544.3 Geographic Distribution of Battery Manufacturing 544.4 Demand for Batteries 564.5 Leading Battery Producers Worldwide 584.5.1 Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Ltd. (CATL) 594.5.2 BYD Co., Ltd. 594.5.3 LG Energy Solution, Ltd. 604.5.4 Panasonic Holdings Corporation 604.5.5 SK Innovation Co., Ltd. 614.5.6 Samsung SDI Co., Ltd. 614.5.7 CALB Group Co., Ltd. 614.5.8 Farasis Energy (Gan Zhou) Co., Ltd. 624.5.9 Envision AESC 624.5.10 Sunwoda Electric Battery Co., Ltd. 624.6 Battery Suppliers and Their Market Clients 634.7 Summary 64References 645 Lithium-Ion Battery Cell and Pack Design Considerations 73Yulun Zhang, Kianoush Naeli, Virendra Jadhav, and Sanjay Tiku5.1 Cell Design Considerations 735.1.1 Mechanical Structure 735.1.2 Chemical Architecture 745.1.3 Safety Architecture: TCO 755.2 Pack Design Considerations 765.2.1 Cell Configurations in a Pack 775.2.2 Battery Management System (BMS) 795.2.3 Electrical Assembly 815.2.4 Mechanical Assembly 825.3 OEM Device Design Considerations 835.3.1 Device Functional and Performance Requirements 835.3.2 Enclosure Design for Battery Protection 845.3.3 Replacement and Reworkability 845.3.4 BMS and Smart Charging 855.3.5 Usage Patterns and Telemetry 855.4 Summary 86References 876 Design and Process Failure Modes and Mechanisms 89Sahithi Maddipatla, Saurabh Saxena, and Michael G. Pecht6.1 Introduction 896.2 Failure Mechanisms in Li-Ion Batteries 916.2.1 Negative Electrode (Anode) 916.2.2 Positive Electrode (Cathode) 926.2.3 Electrolyte 926.2.4 Separator 926.2.5 Current Collectors 936.2.6 Battery Cap Structure 936.3 Lithium-Ion Cell Manufacturing Process 946.4 Role of the Design and Manufacturing Process in Battery Safety 956.4.1 Internal Short Circuit 976.4.2 Localized Heating 976.4.3 Increased Gas Generation 976.4.4 Malfunctioning of Safety Devices 986.5 Summary 99References 1077 Thermal Runaway and Mitigation Strategies 113Simin Peng, Yue Shen, Genkai Xia, Sahithi Maddipatla, Lingxi Kong, Weiping Diao, and MichaelG.Pecht7.1 Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries 1137.2 Safety Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies in Lithium-Ion Batteries 1147.2.1 Current Interrupt Devices (CID) 1147.2.2 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) 1167.2.3 Venting Mechanisms 1177.2.4 Flame Retardants 1187.2.5 Shutdown Separators 1197.2.6 Metal-Polymer Current Collectors 1207.2.7 Protection Circuitry and Battery Management System 1207.2.8 Battery Thermal Management Systems 1227.3 Safety Mechanisms Used in Cells with Different Form Factors 1237.4 Summary 124References 1248 Battery Qualification 127Rashed A. Islam8.1 Key Performance Metrics 1278.1.1 Capacity 1288.1.2 Efficiency 1288.1.3 Battery Cycle Life 1298.1.4 Voltage Stability 1308.2 Battery Qualification Process 1308.3 Battery Qualification Testing Protocols 1328.3.1 Cell-Level Qualification 1338.3.2 Pack-Level Qualification 1398.3.3 Product-Level Qualification 1458.4 Caution Regarding Golden Samples 1468.5 Analysis of Qualification Test Data 1478.6 Ongoing Reliability Test 1498.6.1 Cell- and Pack-Level ORT 1498.6.2 Cell-Level ORT Guidelines 1508.6.3 Pack-Level ORT Guidelines 1528.6.4 Statistical Testing for ORT 1548.7 Summary 155References 1559 Quality Control in Li-Ion Battery Production: Best Practices and Challenges 159Dulja Bamunusinghe, Thisali S. Rathnayake, Raveen Sanjaya De Silva, Logeeshan Velmanickam, and Rashed A. Islam9.1 Incoming Quality Control 1599.2 Process Control Measures 1609.2.1 Core Process Control Techniques in Lithium-Ion Battery Production 1609.2.2 Implementing Effective Quality Control Measures 1669.2.3 Interconnectedness of Process Control and Quality Management 1689.3 Quality Gate Concept 1719.4 Screening Technologies for Batteries 1739.4.1 Optical Inspection 1739.4.2 Ultrasonic Testing 1749.4.3 X-Ray Inspection 1759.4.4 Thermal Imaging 1769.4.5 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 1779.4.6 Acoustic Emission Testing 1789.5 Best Practices in Battery Quality Assurance 1799.6 Challenges and Pitfalls 1819.6.1 Raw Material Quality 1829.6.2 Electrode Manufacturing 1829.6.3 Cell Assembly 1839.6.4 Electrolyte Filling 1839.6.5 Formation and Aging 1839.6.6 Testing and Inspection 1849.6.7 Ensuring Consistent Quality in High-Volume Manufacturing 1849.7 Key Components of a Quality Control Facility 1849.7.1 Specialized Equipment 1869.7.1.1 Battery Cell Testers 1869.7.1.2 Thermal Imaging Cameras 1879.7.1.3 Cycle Life Testers 1879.7.2 Testing Tools 1879.7.3 Skilled Personnel 1899.8 Future Trends and Advancements in Battery Quality Control 1899.8.1 Digitalization and Automation in Quality Control 1909.8.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI), Predictive Maintenance, and Real-Time Monitoring in Quality Control 1919.8.3 Optimization and Quality Control in the Supply Chain Management 1929.8.4 Advanced Material Testing and Inspection Methods 1939.9 Summary 194References 19410 Battery Supply Chain: Quality, Risks and Audits 203Yulun Zhang, Kianoush Naeli, Virendra Jadhav, and Sanjay Tiku10.1 Introduction 20310.2 Quality Assurance: A Tool for Risk Mitigation for Battery Safety 20410.2.1 Metrics 20610.2.2 Metrology 20610.2.3 Supply Chain Management 20710.2.4 Data Analysis 20710.2.5 Training 20710.2.6 Feedback and Audit 20810.3 Cell Manufacturing and Quality Risks 20810.3.1 Risk Mitigation Practices for Cell Manufacturing 20810.4 Pack Manufacturing and Quality Risks 21010.4.1 Risk Mitigation Practices: Pack 21010.5 OEM Device Integration and Quality Risks 21210.5.1 Risk Mitigation Practices: Device Integration 21310.6 Auditing Considerations 21410.6.1 Audit Process 21610.6.2 Auditing Frequency 21710.7 Key Steps in Battery Selection 21810.8 Summary 221References 22311 Storage of Lithium-Ion Batteries 227Haibo Huo, Gifty Pamela Afun, Manoj Kumar Lohana, and Sahithi Maddipatla11.1 Introduction 22711.2 Incidents During Lithium-Ion Battery Storage and Analysis 22811.3 Safety Tests for Storage of Lithium-Ion Batteries 22911.3.1 UN Standard 38.3 22911.3.2 IEC Standard 62281 23011.4 Regulations and Standards for Daily Warehousing and Battery Energy Storage Systems 23111.5 Lithium-Ion Battery Storage in the United States 23211.5.1 US Battery Storage Specifications 23211.5.2 US Daily Warehousing 23311.5.3 US Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) 23411.6 Lithium-Ion Battery Storage in China 23611.7 Lithium-Ion Battery Storage in South Korea 23711.8 Recommendations for Safe Storage Practices 24011.8.1 Segregation and Separation Requirements 24011.8.2 Ventilation and Temperature Control Measures 24011.8.3 Fire Detection and Suppression Systems 24111.8.4 Emergency Response Planning and Personnel Training 24111.8.5 Monitoring and Inspection Protocols 24111.9 Summary 242References 24312 The Transportation of Lithium-Ion Batteries 247Dinithi Senarath, Prabhashi Amanda Andrahennadi, Nipun Iranga Wijesekara, Logeeshan Velmanickam, Niles Perera, Haibo Huo, and Gifty Pamela Afun12.1 Introduction 24712.1.1 Environmental Factors That Affect Battery Performance During Transportation 24712.1.2 Effects of Environmental Factors on Battery Performance During Transportation 24812.2 Regulations and Standards (and Specifically UN 38.3) 24912.2.1 Specific Testing and Compliance Requirements 25012.2.2 Cell-Level Tests and Concerns in Battery Transportation and Storage 25112.2.3 Pack-Level Tests and Concerns in Battery Transportation and Storage 25412.2.4 Product-Level Tests and Concerns in Battery Transportation and Storage 25712.2.5 Analysis of Costs 25912.3 Global Regulations Governing the Secure Transportation of Lithium-Ion Batteries 26112.3.1 Regulations for Transportation by Air 26212.3.2 Regulations for Transportation by Surface (Road/Rail/Sea) 26412.4 Lithium Battery Transportation Regulations in Different Countries 27112.4.1 Transportation Regulations in the United States 27112.4.2 Transportation Regulations in China 27312.4.3 Transportation Regulations in Europe 27612.4.4 Transportation Regulations in South Korea 27812.5 Global Regulations on Lithium Battery Disposal 28112.6 Packaging and Safety Best Practices for Shipping Lithium-Ion Batteries 28212.7 Summary 283References 28413 Battery Safety and Reliability Standards 291İlknur Baylakoglu and Yan Ning13.1 The Landscape of Battery Safety Standards 29213.1.1 International and Regional Standards Organizations 29313.1.2 Regional and National Regulatory Bodies 29613.1.3 Certification Bodies 29913.2 Battery Cell Safety and Reliability Standards 30113.2.1 Transportation Standards 30213.2.2 Abuse and Environmental Standards 30313.2.3 Performance and Durability Standards 30513.3 Battery Pack and System Safety and Reliability Standards 30813.3.1 Transportation Standards 30913.3.2 Abuse and Environmental Standards 31013.3.3 Performance and Durability Standards 31513.3.4 BMS Functional Standards 31513.4 Safety Standards and Regulations Incorporating Batteries for Different Applications 31713.4.1 Portable Devices (e.g., Smartphones, Laptops) 31813.4.2 Automotive (Electric Vehicles, Hybrid Electric Vehicles) 31813.4.3 Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Power Systems 32013.4.4 Marine and Navy Applications 32113.4.5 Avionics 32313.4.6 Space Applications 32413.5 Trends in New Battery Safety Standards 32513.5.1 Evolving Battery Technologies 32713.5.2 Sustainability 32713.5.3 Battery Management Systems and Data Analytics 32913.5.4 Second-Life Applications 32913.5.5 International Collaboration 33013.5.6 Standardization Gap Analysis 33113.5.7 Fire Hazard Gap Analysis 33413.6 Summary 334References 33514 Battery Rewrapping and Counterfeits 341Lingxi Kong and Michael G. Pecht14.1 Counterfeiting 34114.2 Rewrapping 34314.3 Counterfeit Batteries in the Market 34414.4 Hazards of Counterfeit Batteries 34814.5 Summary 349References 35015 Supply Chain Battery Regulations 353Shalini Dwivedi and Aparna Akula15.1 EU Battery Regulation 2023 35315.2 Unveiling the Regulatory Framework: Key Features and Insights 35415.2.1 Evolutionary Shift: Battery Regulation 2023 Versus Battery Directive 2006 35515.2.2 A Forward Look at EU Battery Regulation 2023/1542 35515.2.3 Navigating Challenges and Solutions 35815.3 Battery Sustainability Practices Worldwide 35815.3.1 United States of America (USA) 35815.3.2 China 35915.3.3 Japan 36015.3.4 India 36115.4 Summary 362References 36216 Right to Repair Legislation and the Implications on Battery Safety in the EU 365Simin Peng, Quanqing Yu, and Yuwei Nie16.1 Generation and Treatment of Electronic Waste in Europe 36616.2 Key Points of the EU Right to Repair Regulations 36916.3 Controversies and Discussions Triggered by the Right to Repair Rules 37016.3.1 Manufacturers’ Concerns 37216.3.2 Environmental Impact 37316.3.3 Consumer Experience and Safety 37316.3.4 Insurance Industry Perspective 37416.3.5 Legal Ambiguities 37516.3.6 Economic Considerations 37516.4 Measures Taken by the EU to Improve Consumer Ability to Replace Batteries in Portable Devices 37516.5 Arguments Against Allowing Consumers to Replace Smartphone Batteries 37716.6 Summary 378References 37917 Battery Reuse and Repurposing: Balancing Sustainability with Risk 383Shalini Dwivedi, Aparna Akula, and Michael G. Pecht17.1 Discarding of Batteries 38417.2 Repurposing of Lithium-Ion Batteries 38517.3 Responsible Battery Repurposing: Navigating Resilience and Safety Concerns 38617.3.1 Health of Retired Batteries 38817.3.1.1 Counterfeit Batteries 38817.3.1.2 Inadequate Testing 38817.3.1.3 Compatibility Issues 38917.3.1.4 Insurance Coverage 38917.3.2 Beyond “Can We?”: Delving into the Imperatives and Challenges of Battery Repurposing 38917.4 Summary 390References 39118 Risks Associated with Recycling and Disposal 395Simin Peng, Jinkang Chen, Jie Wu, and Michael G. Pecht18.1 Retired Batteries 39518.2 Recycling 39718.3 Disposal 39918.4 Safety Risk Assessment and Suggestions for Different Treatments 39918.5 Recycling of Batteries and Chemical Pollution Risks 40018.6 Disposal of Batteries and Environmental Pollution Risks 40118.7 Examples of Companies That Deal with the Retired Batteries 40118.8 Standards for Retired Battery Treatment 40318.9 Summary 406References 407Epilog: An Executive Summary 409References 413Index 415