Principles of Research in Behavioral Science

Mary E. Kite is Professor of Social Psychology at Ball State University, USA. She received her Ph.D. from Purdue University. Her research focuses on stereotyping and prejudice toward women, gays and lesbians, and older adults. She has served as President of The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP, APA Division 2) and Secretary-Treasurer and President of the Midwestern Psychological Association (MPA). She is a Fellow of APA Divisions 2, 8, 9, 35, and 44 and of the Association for Psychological Science and MPA. In 2014, she received the Charles L. Brewer Distinguished Teaching Award from the American Psychological Foundation. She co-authored the third edition of The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination with Bernard E. Whitley, Jr.Bernard E. Whitley, Jr. is Professor Emeritus of Psychological Science at Ball State University, USA. He received his Ph.D. in Social Psychology from the University of Pittsburgh. He is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association and charter member and Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science. His research interests focus on the roles of ideological variables in prejudice, and he has published in many journals including Psychological Bulletin, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. His other books include The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination with Mary E. Kite and Academic Dishonesty: An Educator’s Guide (2002) with Patricia Keith-Spiegel.

• Part 1. IntroductionChapter 1: Behavioral ScienceScience Goals of Science Key Values of Science Scientific Approaches to Knowledge Theories Components of Theories Characteristics of Theories Purposes of Theories Criteria for Evaluating Theories Research The Research Process Evaluating Research Inference in Research Theory, Research, and Application The Interdependence of Theory, Research, and Application The Uses of Behavioral Science and Theory Chapter Summary Suggestions for Further Reading Key Terms ReferencesChapter 2: Research Strategies: An OverviewPurposes of Research Basic and Applied Research Evaluation Research Action Research Quantitative and Qualitative Research Research Strategies The Experimental Strategy The Case Study Strategy The Correlational Strategy Comparing the StrategiesTime Perspectives: Short Term Versus Long TermDevelopmental Research Prospective Research Outcome Evaluation Research Settings: Laboratory Versus FieldResearch Strategies and Research Settings Research Settings and Research Participants Chapter Summary Suggestions for Further ReadingsKey Terms ReferencesChapter 3: The Ethical Treatment of Research ParticipantsResponsibility for Ethical ResearchEthical Considerations While Planning Research Risk of Harm or Deprivation Voluntary ParticipationInformed ConsentDeception Ethical Obligations During Data Collection Avoidance of Harm Withdrawal of ConsentEthical Considerations Following Data CollectionAlleviating Adverse Effects Debriefing Compensation of Control GroupsConfidentiality of DataThe Institutional Review Board Membership of the IRBCriteria for approving research Review procedures Research Ethics in Cultural ContextExamples of Ethical IssuesSome GuidelinesChapter SummarySuggested ReadingsKey TermsReferencesPart 2: Foundations of ResearchChapter 4: The Professional and Social Responsibilities of ScientistsMistakes and Errors in Research Consequences of Error Incompetence and NegligenceQuestionable Research PracticesCorrecting Mistakes and Errors Scientific MisconductData FabricationPreventing Scientific MisconductEthical Issues in PublicationAuthorship CreditDuplicate PublicationPlagiarismUsing the Results of ResearchThe Application of Research ResultsInfluencing Decision Makers Researcher’s ResponsibilitiesResearch and the Common GoodIs Applied Research More Ethical Than Basic Research?Should Research on Some Topics Be Banned or Restricted?Is There an Ethical Obligation to Conduct Research?Chapter Summary Suggestions for Further ReadingKey Terms ReferencesChapter 5: Formulating a Research QuestionFormulating Research HypothesesEstablishing a BackgroundChoosing a Topic Formulating the Question Reviewing the LiteratureFormulating Hypotheses Designing the StudyWriting the Research Proposal Replication ResearchForms of ReplicationInterpreting the Results of Replication ResearchConsiderations in Conducting Replication Research Replication as Part of a Systematic Research ProgramDesigning Research for UtilizationKnowledge UtilizationDesign Considerations Dissemination of Research ResultsBias in the Formulation of Research QuestionsPersonal ValuesBiased Assumptions Avoiding BiasChapter SummarySuggestions for Further ReadingKey Terms ReferencesChapter 6: Developing a Measurement StrategyReliability and ValidityManifest Variables and Hypothetical ConstructsReliability, Validity, and Measurement ErrorAssessing Reliability Forms of Reliability Choosing Among the Forms of ReliabilityStandards for ReliabilityItem Response TheoryAssessing Validity Categories of Validity EvidenceDiscriminant ValidityRelationships Among the Categories of Validity EvidenceDetermining a Measure’s Degree of Validity Modalities of MeasurementSelf-Report MeasuresBehavioral MeasuresPhysiological Measures Implicit Measures Choosing a Measurement Modality Locating and Evaluating MeasuresCategories of MeasuresLocating MeasuresEvaluating Measures Chapter SummarySuggestions for Further ReadingKey TermsReferencesChapter 7: The Internal Validity of ResearchConfounds Natural Confounds Treatment Confounds Measurement Confounds Threats to Internal ValidityTime-Related Threats Control Groups in Pretest-Posttest ResearchTheoretical ValiditySelection Threats Volunteer biasPreexisting groups Mortality Reactivity Sources of Reactivity Evaluation apprehension Controlling Reactivity Demand Characteristics Sources of Demand CharacteristicsParticipant RolesControlling Demand Characteristics Experimenter Expectancies Types of Expectancy EffectsTechniques of ControlEnhancing Internal ValiditySummary Suggestions for Further Reading Key Terms ReferencesChapter 8: The External Validity of ResearchThe Concept of External Validity Aspects of External Validity Components of External Validity The Structural Components of External ValiditySetting Factors Participant Sample Factors Research Procedure Factors Cultural FactorsTime Factors Time sampling Changes over time The Functional and Conceptual Components of External Validity The Functional Component The Conceptual Component Relationships Among the Components of External Validity Assessing External Validity Assessing Generalizability Assessing Ecological Validity Laboratory Research, Natural Setting Research, and External Validity Laboratory Research and Ecological Validity External Validity and Internal Validity Chapter Summary Suggestions for Further Reading Key Terms ReferencesPart 3: Research DesignChapter 9: True ExperimentsManipulating the Independent VariablesConditions of the Independent Variable Additional Control and Comparison Conditions Characteristics of a Good Manipulation Using Multiple Stimuli Controlling Extraneous Variance Holding Extraneous Variables Constant Between-Subjects Designs Within-Subjects Designs Multiple-Group Designs Quantitative Independent Variables Qualitative Independent Variables Interpreting the Results of Multiple-Group Experiments Factorial Designs The Nature of Factorial Designs Interaction Effects Forms of Factorial Designs Uses for Factorial Designs Chapter Summary Suggestions for Further Readings Key Terms ReferencesChapter 10: Field ResearchThe Problem of Control in Field Settings Control Over Variables Control Over Research Populations Field Experiments Choosing a Research Setting Implementing the Independent Variable Problems in Field Experimentation Natural Experiments and Quasi-Experiments The Group Comparison Approach The Time Series Approach Naturalistic Observation Categories of Naturalistic Observation Nonparticipant observation Coding Natural BehaviorsProblems in Naturalistic Observation Chapter Summary Suggestions for Further Reading Key Terms ReferencesChapter 11: Correlational DesignsThe Nature of Correlational ResearchSimple Correlation AnalysisAssumptions of Linearity and AdditivityFactors Affecting the Correlation CoefficientMultifaceted ConstructsSome Recommendations Partial Correlation AnalysisMultiple Regression Analysis (MRA)Forms of MRAInformation Provided by MRAThe Problem of MulticollinearityMRA as an Alternative to ANOVA Some Other Correlational TechniquesLogistic Regression Analysis Multiway Frequency Analysis Data Types and Data AnalysisChapter SummarySuggestions for Further ReadingKey TermsReferencesChapter 12: Factor Analysis, Path Analysis, and Structural Equation ModelingExploratory Factor Analysis Uses of Exploratory Factor Analysis Considerations in Exploratory Factor Analysis Confirmatory Factor AnalysisHypothesis TestingMeasure ValidationEvaluating Goodness of Fit Testing Mediational HypothesesThe Causal Steps StrategyPath Analysis with Observed VariablesStructural Equation ModelingProspective ResearchLimits on InterpretationChapter SummarySuggestions for Further ReadingKey Terms ReferencesChapter 13: The Single-Case Research StrategyThe Role of Single-Case Research in Psychology Some History Uses of Single-Case Research Validity Criteria in Single-Case ResearchMeasurement Criteria Replication Criteria Control Criteria Impact Criteria Treatment Criteria Case Study Research Choosing Cases to Study Data Collection Single-Case Experiments Designs for Single-Case Experiments The Importance of a Stable Baseline Data Analysis in Single-Case ResearchQualitative Data Quantitative Data Chapter Summary Suggestions for Further Reading Key Terms ReferencesChapter 14: Qualitative Research and InterviewingRachel Kraus, Ball State UniversityThe Purpose and Goals of Qualitative ResearchThe Nature of Qualitative ResearchKey Characteristics of Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research QuestionsHow to Choose a Qualitative Research QuestionQualitative Research as "Work"How is Qualitative Research Evaluated?Reliability in Qualitative ResearchValidation StrategiesTrustworthinessDesigning Qualitative Research Grounded TheoryEthnographySamplingNon-probability Samples in Qualitative ResearchSample Size and Theoretical SaturationData CollectionQualitative InterviewsAfter the InterviewTranscriptionData AnalysisCodingInterpreting the DataThe Use of Software Programs in Qualitative ResearchWriting About Qualitative ResearchReflexivity and RepresentationAudienceEncodingUsing Participants’ QuotesWriting Strategies Across Qualitative ApproachesChapter SummarySuggestions for Further ReadingKey TermsReferencesChapter 15: Survey ResearchAsking QuestionsOpen- and Closed-Ended QuestionsQuestion Wording Obtaining Answers Levels of MeasurementResponse Formats Choosing a Response Format Multi-Item ScalesAdvantages of Multi-Item ScalesTypes of Multi-Item Scales Response BiasesQuestion-Related BiasesPerson-Related Biases Cultural Response SetsInterpreting ResponsesQuestionnaire DesignQuestion Order Constructing QuestionnaireInstructionsUsing Existing MeasuresQuestionnaire Administration Group AdministrationOnline SurveysTelephone InterviewsIn-Person Interviews Comparing the MethodsChapter SummarySuggestions for Further ReadingKey TermsReferencesPart 4: Collecting and Interpreting DataChapter 16: Evaluation ResearchGoal DefinitionNeeds Assessment Evaluability Assessment Program Monitoring The Target Population Program Implementation Unintended Effects Program Monitoring and Program Development Impact Assessment Criteria for Evaluating Impact Answering the Research Questions Research Designs Interpreting Null Results Sources of null results When "null" results are not null Efficiency Analysis Cost-Benefit Analysis Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Information Utilization Criteria for Research Utilization The Political Context Measuring Change Difference Scores The Reliable Change Index Chapter Summary Suggestions for Further Reading Key Terms ReferencesChapter 17: Data CollectionResearch Participants Populations and Samples SamplingSample Size Research Procedures Effective Research Settings Effective Instructions "Debugging" the Procedure The Data Collection Session The Post-Experimental Interview Research Assistants Using the Internet to Collect Data The Validity of Web-Based Data Advantages of Internet Research Limitations of Internet Research Participant Recruitment Ethical Issues Archival Data Types of Archives Advantages of Archival Data Limitations of Archival DataChapter SummarySuggestions for Further Reading Key Terms ReferencesChapter 18: Interpreting Research ResultsDescribing the Results of the Research The Nature of the Relationship Real Versus Chance Relationships Effect Size and ImportanceInference in Behavioral Science Research Knowledge as a Social Construction Bias in Interpreting Data Making Valid Inferences Null Results Uses of the Null Hypothesis Prejudice Against the Null Hypothesis Accepting the Null HypothesisIntegrating the Results of ResearchIdentifying Implications for Theory Identifying Implications for Research Identifying Implications for ApplicationChapter SummarySuggestions for Further ReadingKey TermsReferencesChapter 19: Literature ReviewingPurposes of Literature ReviewsConceptual Literature ReviewsIntegrative Literature Reviews Defining the Research QuestionThe Scope of the QuestionApproaches to Answering the Question Finding Relevant Research Deciding Which Studies to UseInclude All StudiesInclude Only Published StudiesInclude Only Valid StudiesStratified SamplingExpert JudgmentIntegrating the Results of Primary Research Levels of AnalysisOperationally Defining Study Outcome Narrative Literature ReviewsMeta-AnalysisMeta-synthesisBest Evidence Literature ReviewingInterpreting the ResultsThe Effects of Judgment CallsThe Correlational Nature of Moderator Variable AnalysesMeaning versus Numbers in Meta-AnalysisEvaluating Literature ReviewsUnderstanding Meta-AnalysisDefining the Research Question Locating Relevant Research Deciding Which Studies to Include Integrating the Results of the Studies Interpreting the Results of the Meta-AnalysisChapter SummarySuggestions for Further ReadingKey TermsReferences