Health Physics

Joseph John Bevelacqua, PhD, CHP, RRPT, is the President of Bevelacqua Resources, Richland, Washington, USA, a provider of radiation protection consulting services including study materials for the American Board of Health Physics Certfi cation Examination. A theoretical nuclear physicist by training, Dr. Bevelacqua is a Certified Health Physicist, Registered Radiation Protection Technologist, and Certified Senior Reactor Operator and has over 45 years of professional experience. This experience includes the medical, fuel cycle, accelerator, power reactor, environmental, and non-ionizing areas.He was a key player in the Three Mile Island and Hanford cleanup activities, and is an active researcher with over 100 publications. His research areas include cancer therapy using heavy ions and microspheres, theoretical nuclear and high-energy physics, mathematical physics, and applied health physics. He recently received California University’s Professional Excellence Award for his accomplishments.

• Preface XXIAcknowledgments XXVA Note on Units XVIIPart I Overview of Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards 11 Introduction to Twenty-First Century Health Physics 31.1 Overview of Twenty-First Century Health Physics 31.2 Health Physics Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities 31.3 Forecast of Possible Future Issues 6References 12Part II Nuclear Fuel Cycle Issues 152 Nuclear Fuel Cycle 172.1 Overview 172.2 Basic Fuel Cycle Options 182.3 Overview of the Twentieth-Century Nuclear Fuel Cycle 182.3.1 Uranium Fuel Cycle 192.4 Twenty-First-Century Changes and Innovations 312.5 Nuclear Proliferation 752.6 Twentieth-Century Waste Disposal Options and Solutions 812.7 Twenty-First-Century Fuel Cycle Options 86References 103Part III Accidents and Nuclear Events 1093 Nuclear Accidents and Radiological Emergencies 1113.1 Overview 1113.2 Design Considerations 1113.3 Major Reactor Accidents 1313.3.2 Chernobyl 1333.4 Emergency Preparedness Programs 1423.5 Accident Phases 1513.6 Emergency Preparedness Effectiveness 1523.7 Reprocessing Waste Tanks 1623.8 Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Accident 169References 1804 Nuclear Terrorist Events Including INDs and RDDs 1874.1 Overview 1874.2 Nuclear Weapons Types 1884.3 Nuclear Event Types 1904.4 Accident Assumptions 2114.5 Radiation Protection Considerations 2264.6 Mass Casualty Considerations 2404.7 Stakeholder Involvement 2404.8 Contamination Remediation 241References 253Part IV Nuclear Medicine and Public Health 2595 Nuclear Medicine 2615.1 Overview 2615.2 General Nuclear Medicine Categories 2625.3 Side Effects from Radiation Therapy 2755.4 Emerging Therapy Approaches 2775.6 Nanotechnology 3045.7 Other Considerations 330References 3386 Public Radiation Exposures and Associated Issues 3456.1 Overview 3456.2 Public Radiation Exposures and Associated Effects 3456.3 Summary of Doses to the US Population 3706.4 Public Dose Limits 3706.5 Risk Communication 3716.6 Public Involvement in Nuclear Licensing 3776.7 Litigation 3866.8 Environmental Protection 3866.9 Unresolved Issues Associated with Major Reactor Accidents 389References 409Part V Regulatory Issues, Limitations, and Challenges 4157 Regulatory Considerations 4177.1 Overview 4177.2 Twentieth-Century Regulatory Challenges 4187.3 Twenty-First-Century Regulatory Challenges 4267.4 Proactive Vice Reactive Philosophy 4327.5 Accident Analysis and Risk Assessment 4337.6 Licensing Process and Technical Basis 4357.7 National and International Standards 4367.8 Accidents Affecting Multiple Nations 4397.9 Emergency Response 4487.10 Emerging Issues 4517.11 US Regulatory Improvements 4717.12 Future Power Reactor Directions and Challenges 478References 490Part VI Solutions to Problems 497Solutions 499Part VII Appendices 661A Selected Data on Radionuclides of Health Physics Interest 663A.1 Introduction 663A.2 Alpha Decay 663A.3 Beta Decay 663A.4 Gamma Emission 668A.5 Gamma Emission 668A.6 Electron Capture 668A.7 Positron Emission 668A.8 Spontaneous Fission 668References 669B Production Equations in Health Physics 671B.1 Introduction 671B.2 Theory 671B.3 Examples of Production Equations 674B.3.1 Activation 674B.3.2 Demineralizer Activity 675B.3.3 Surface Deposition 675B.3.4 Release of Radioactive Material into a Room 676B.4 Alternative Derivation of the Production Equation 676B.5 Conclusions 677References 677C Key Health Physics Relationships 679C.1 Introduction 679C.2 Notation and Terminology 679C.3 Key Relationships 682C.3.1 Activation 682C.3.2 Activity 682C.3.3 Attenuation 683C.3.4 Duty Factor 683C.3.5 External Dosimetry 683C.3.6 Internal Dosimetry 684C.3.7 Dispersion Relationships 684C.3.8 Electromagnetic Relationships 684C.3.9 Mechanics Relationships 686C.3.10 Relationships 687C.3.11 Production Equations 687C.3.12 Quantum Mechanics 687References 688D Internal Dosimetry 689D.1 Introduction 689D.2 Overview of Internal Dosimetry Models 689D.3 MIRD Methodology 691D.4 ICRP Methodology 693D.5 Biological Effects 693D.6 ICRP 26/30 and ICRP 60/66/30 Terminology 696D.7 ICRP 26 and ICRP 60 Recommendations 697D.7.1 Calculation of Internal Dose Equivalents Using ICRP 26/30 698D.7.2 Calculation of Equivalent and Effective Doses Using ICRP 60/66/30 699D.8 ICRP 103/66/100 Methodology 701D.8.1 Radiation Effects, Tissue Weighting Factors, and Radiation Weighting Factors 701D.8.2 Sex Averaging 702D.8.3 Assessment of Occupational Dose 703D.9 Human Respiratory Tract Model (HRTM) 704D.9.1 Absorption 705D.9.2 Particle Sizes 705D.9.3 Additional Model Details 706D.10 Human Alimentary Tract Model (HATM) 706D.10.1 Absorption to Blood 707D.10.2 Dose Calculations 710D.10.3 Model Dependence 710References 710E Health Physics-Related Computer Codes 713E.1 Overview 713E.2 Code Descriptions 713E.2.1 CAP-88 (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/assessment/ CAP88/index.html) 713E.2.2 COMPASS (http://orise.orau.gov/environmental-assessments- health physics/resources/marssim.aspx) 714E.2.3 COMPLY (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/assessment/ comply.html#download) 714E.2.4 DCAL (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/assessment/ dcal.html#download) 714E.2.5 DWUCK/CHUCK/MERCURY (https://rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/psr/ psr5/psr-546.html) 715E.2.6 EGS Code System (http://rcwww.kek.jp/research/ egs/egs5.html) 715E.2.7 ENDF (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/exfor3/endf00.htm) 715E.2.8 FLUKA (http://www.fluka.org/) 716E.2.9 GENII-LIN (http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/ccc/ccc7/ ccc-728.html) 716E.2.10 HOTSPOT (http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/mis/mis0/ mis-009.html) 716E.2.11 IDD–SAM (www.bevelacquaresources.com) 716E.2.12 IMBA (www.hpa-radiationservices.org.uk/services/imba) 717E.2.13 ISO-PC (https://rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/ccc/ccc6/ccc-636.html) 717E.2.14 JENDL (http://wwwndc.tokai-sc.jaea.go.jp/jendl/jendl.html) 717E.2.15 LISE++ (http://lise.nscl.msu.edu/lise.html) 718E.2.16 MACCS2 (http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/regulatory/research/ comp-codes.html) 718E.2.17 MARS (http://www-ap.fnal.gov/MARS/) 718E.2.18 MCNP (http://mcnp-green.lanl.gov/index.html) 718E.2.19 MCNPX (http://mcnpx.lanl.gov/) 719E.2.20 MICROSHIELD®(http://www.radiationsoftware.com/ mshield.html) 719E.2.21 MICROSKYSHINE®(http://www.radiationsoftware.com/mskyshine.html) 719E.2.22 MIDAS (http://www.absconsulting.com/midas.cfm) 719E.2.23 MULTIBIODOSE (http://www.multibiodose.eu/ software.html) 720E.2.24 OLINDA/EXM (http://olinda.vueinnovations.com/olinda) 720E.2.25 PRESTO (http://www.epa.gov/radiation/assessment/ presto.html) 720E.2.26 RADTRAD(http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/ccc/ccc8/ ccc-800.html) 720E.2.27 RASCAL (http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/ccc/ccc7/ ccc-783.html) 721E.2.28 RESRAD (http://web.ead.anl.gov/resrad/home2/) 721E.2.29 SCALE 5 (http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/ccc/ ccc7/ ccc-725.html) 721E.2.30 SKYSHINE-KSU(http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/ccc/ ccc6/ccc-646.html) 722E.2.31 SPAR (http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/ccc/ ccc2/ccc-228.html) 722E.2.32 TRACE (http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/psr/ psr4/psr-481.html) 722E.2.33 VARSKIN (http://www-rsicc.ornl.gov/codes/ccc/ ccc7/ccc-781.html) 723E.2.34 VSM (http://www.doseinfo-radar.com/RADARSoft.html) 723E.2.35 VSP (http://vsp.pnnl.gov/) 723E.3 Code Utilization 723E.4 Code Documentation 724References 724F Systematics of Charged Particle Interactions with Matter 727F.1 Introduction 727F.2 Overview of External Radiation Sources 727F.2.1 Cancer Therapy 727F.2.2 Accelerator Transmutation of High-Level Waste 728F.2.3 Space Tourism 729F.3 Tissue-Absorbed Dose from a Heavy Ion or Proton Beam 730F.4 Determination of Total Reaction Cross-Section 730F.5 Calculational Considerations 731References 731G Angular Absorbed Dose Dependence of Heavy Ion Interactions 733G.1 Introduction 733G.2 Basic Theory 733G.3 Differential Scattering Cross-Section 734G.4 Model Calculations 735References 735H Basis for Radiation Protection Regulations 737H.1 Overview 737H.2 Risk 737H.3 Basic Epidemiology 739H.4 Dose–Response Relationships 740H.5 Risk Models 741H.6 BEIR VII Uncertainties 742H.7 Doubling Dose 743H.8 Probability of Causation 743H.9 Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act 745H.10 Future Dose Limits 746H.10.1 LNT Hypothesis 746H.10.1.1 Arguments Supporting the LNT Hypothesis 747H.10.1.2 Arguments against the LNT Hypothesis 747H.10.2 Threshold Dose limits 748H.10.3 Radiation Carcinogenesis 749H.11 Future Regulations 749References 749Index 753