Basic Health Physics

Joseph John Bevelacqua, PhD, CHP, is the President of Bevelacqua Resources. A theoretical nuclear physicist by training, Dr. Bevelacqua is a Certified Health Physicist and Certified Senior Reactor Operator and has over 30 years of professional experience. This experience includes the medical, fuel cycle, accelerator, power reactor, environmental, and non-ionizing areas. He was a key player in the Three Mile Island and Hanford cleanup activities, and is an active researcher with over 75 publications. His research areas include heavy ion cancer therapy, theoretical physics, and health physics applications. He recently received California University's Professional Excellence Award for his accomplishments.

• Preface to the Second Edition xxiPreface to the First Edition xxiiiPart I Radiation Protection Fundamentals 11 Introduction 31.1 Questions 3References 19Part II Introduction to Radiation Protection 212 Dosimetric Quantities and Units 232.1 Overview 232.2 Basic Concepts 232.2.1 Exposure (X) 232.2.2 Absorbed Dose (D) 242.2.3 Dose Equivalent (H) 252.2.4 Committed Dose Equivalent (HT) 252.2.5 Effective Dose Equivalent (HE) 252.2.6 Kerma 262.2.7 Equivalent Dose (HT) 262.2.8 Effective Dose (E) 272.2.9 Specifi c Energy Imparted 282.2.10 Lineal Energy 282.3 Radiation Field Quantities 292.3.1 Particle Fluence and Fluence Rate 292.3.2 Energy Fluence and Energy Fluence Rate 292.4 Total Mass Stopping Power 312.5 Linear Energy Transfer 322.6 Questions 33References 383 Natural and Human-Made Sources of Radiation Exposure 413.1 Overview 413.2 Natural Sources of Radiation Exposure 413.3 Exposure Estimates 423.3.1 Cosmic Radiation 423.3.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 423.3.3 Terrestrial Gamma Radiation 423.3.4 Inhaled Radionuclides 433.3.5 Radionuclides in the Body 433.3.6 Total Exposure from Natural Background 433.4 Genetically Significant Dose 453.5 Human-Made Sources Of Radiation Exposure 453.5.1 Occupational Exposures 453.6 Example Applications 453.6.1 Neutron Sources 463.6.2 Oil Well Logging 463.6.3 Radiography 463.6.4 Radiation Sterilization and Preservation 463.6.5 Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Testing 473.6.6 Public Radiation Exposure from Medical Diagnosis and Therapy 473.7 Comparison of Population Doses for 2006 and the Early 1980s 483.8 Questions 50References 554 Standards and Regulations 574.1 Objectives of Standards 574.2 Occupational Limits 574.3 Non Occupational or Public Exposures 584.4 Regulations 584.4.1 Minors 594.4.2 Planned Special Exposures 604.4.3 Notifications 614.5 Other Requirements 614.6 Questions 61References 675 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 695.1 Overview 695.2 Biological Effects 695.2.1 Oxygen Effect 705.3 Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau 705.4 Degree of Biological Damage 715.5 General Radiation Effects and Irradiations in the Individual 715.6 Specific Radiation Effects 725.6.1 Acute Radiation Exposures 735.6.2 Skin Exposures 735.7 Delayed Effects 745.8 Radiation Risk and Risk Models 765.9 ICRP 103 Risk Coefficients 775.10 Basic Epidemiology 785.11 Dose Response Relationships 785.12 Risk Models 795.12.1 BEIR VII 795.13 Probability of Causation 815.13.1 Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act 25.14 Questions 83References 936 Instrumentation 976.1 Overview 976.2 Gas-Filled Detectors 976.2.1 Ionization Region 986.2.2 Proportional Region 996.2.3 Geiger–Mueller Region 1006.2.4 Photomultiplier Tubes 1016.3 Scintillation Counters 1016.4 Semiconductor Detectors 1026.5 Nuclear Spectroscopy 1036.6 Alpha Particle Monitoring 1046.7 Gamma Monitoring 1056.8 Beta Particle Monitoring 1066.9 Neutron Monitoring 1076.10 Instrumentation Summary 1086.11 Particle Detection Efficiency 1086.12 Personal Dosimetry Devices 1086.13 Questions 114References 1227 External Dosimetry – Basic Source Geometries and Attenuation Relationships 1257.1 Source Configurations – No Shielding 1257.1.1 Point Source Geometry 1257.1.2 Line Source Geometry 1277.1.3 Disc Source Geometry 1277.1.4 Slab Source Geometry 1287.2 Attenuation by a Shield without Buildup 1287.3 Attenuation by a Shield with Buildup 1297.4 Activation Sources 1297.5 Charged Particle Dose 1307.6 Beta Dose 1327.7 Questions 133References 1398 Internal Dosimetry 1418.1 Internal Dose Assessment Models 1418.2 Internal Dosimetry Definitions 1428.3 ICRP 2/10 Methodology 1428.3.1 Single-Uptake, Single-Compartment Model 1428.3.2 Constant Rate of Uptake, Single-Compartment Model 1448.3.3 Variation of q f2 after the Cessation of the Uptake 1448.4 MIRD Theory 1458.5 Simplified MIRD Equation 1468.6 Alternate MIRD Equation 1488.7 MIRD Equation 1488.8 ICRP 26/30 Dose Methodology 1508.8.1 Metabolic Models 1518.8.2 Lung Model 1518.8.3 Ingestion Model 1538.8.4 Calculation of Doses 1558.9 ICRP 60/66 Methodology 1558.9.1 Detriment 1568.9.2 Terminology 1578.10 ICRP 103/66/100 Methodology 1608.10.1 Radiation Effects, Tissue Weighting Factors, and Radiation Weighting Factors 1608.10.2 Sex-Averaging 1618.10.3 Assessment of Occupational Dose 1628.11 Human Respiratory Tract Model (HRTM) 1628.11.1 Absorption 1638.11.2 Particle Sizes 1648.11.3 Additional Model Details 1648.12 Human Alimentary Tract Model (HATM) 1658.12.1 Absorption to Blood 1678.12.2 Dose Calculations 1698.13 Questions 169References 1779 ALARA and Shielding 1819.1 Introduction 1819.2 ALARA Principles 1819.2.1 Time 1819.2.2 Distance 1829.2.3 Shielding 1839.2.3.1 Photon Shielding 1839.2.3.2 X-ray Shielding 1849.2.3.3 Beta Particle Shielding 1859.2.3.4 Bremsstrahlung 1859.2.3.5 Shield Design and Beta-Ray Properties 1869.2.3.6 Neutron Shielding 1879.3 Elements of ALARA 1879.3.1 Job Planning 1889.3.2 Job Execution 1899.3.3 Review of Job Completion 1899.4 Accident Conditions 1899.5 ALARA Examples 1909.6 ALARA in Advanced Technologies 1919.6.1 Fusion Reactors 1919.6.2 Muon Colliders 1929.7 Questions 194References 19910 Counting Statistics 20110.1 Overview 20110.2 Distributions 20110.3 Mean and Standard Deviation 20210.4 Errors and Confidence Interval 20310.5 Statistical Error 20410.6 Error Introduced by the Background 20510.7 Optimum Distribution of Counting Time between Sample and Background 20610.8 Terminology 20710.8.1 Critical Level 20710.8.2 Lower Limit of Detection (LLD) 20810.8.3 Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA) 20810.9 Type Errors 20910.10 Statistical Tests and Data Characteristics 21010.10.1 Propagation of Errors 21110.10.2 Comparison of Data Sets Using the Student’s t-Test 21210.10.3 Distribution of a Series of Counts – Chi-Square Statistic 21310.10.4 Rejection of Data 21510.11 Questions 216References 222Part III Applications 22511 Monitoring and Interpretation 22711.1 Overview 22711.2 External Dose Measurements 22711.3 Bioassay 22811.4 Air Sampling 23111.5 Release of a Radioactive Gas into a Ventilated Room 23211.6 Compliance 23311.7 Questions 234References 24112 Operational Health Physics 24312.1 Overview 24312.2 Radiological Controls 24312.2.1 Radioiodine 24312.2.2 Noble Gases 24412.2.3 Particulates 24412.2.4 Tritium 24512.3 Radiation Surveys 24512.4 Respiratory Protection 24612.5 Safety Precedence Sequence for Radiation Hazards 24812.6 Questions 250References 25513 Transportation and Waste 25713.1 Radioactive Waste Overview 25713.2 Radioactive Waste 25713.3 Natural Waste Materials 25813.3.1 Mine Tailings 25813.3.2 Depleted Uranium 25813.3.3 NORM 25813.4 Human-Made Radioactive Waste Materials 25913.4.1 Fission and Activation Products 25913.4.2 Source Material and Special Nuclear Material 25913.4.3 Transuranic Waste 26013.5 Byproduct Material 26013.6 Transportation 26113.7 Definitions 26113.7.1 Radioactive Material 26113.7.2 Packaging 26413.7.3 Vehicles 26413.7.4 Transport Index 26513.7.5 Criticality Safety Index 26513.8 Package Radiation Surveys and Limits 26613.9 Package Requirements 26813.9.1 Limited Quantities 26813.9.2 LSA and SCO Packages 26913.9.3 LSA and SCO Shipping Requirements 27013.9.4 Type A 27113.9.5 Type B 27213.9.6 Fissile Material 27213.10 Transport Vehicle Surveys 27313.11 Placarding and Shipping Papers 27313.11.1 Placarding 27313.11.2 Shipping Papers 27313.12 Questions 274References 28314 Nuclear Emergencies 28514.1 Introduction 28514.2 Regulatory Guidance 28514.2.1 Emergency Doses for Radiation Workers 28514.3 ICRP Emergency Dose Recommendations 28714.4 Accident Classification 28814.5 Protective Action Guidelines 28914.6 Internal Uptakes 29014.7 Examples of Nuclear Emergencies 29114.7.1 Three Mile Island 29114.7.2 Accident Sequence 29114.7.3 Radioactivity Released to the Environment 29114.7.4 Summary of Radiation Doses 29214.7.5 Chernobyl 29214.8 Intentional Dispersal of Radioactive Materials 29414.9 Questions 296References 302Part IV Specialty Health Physics Areas 30515 Medical Health Physics 30715.1 Overview 30715.2 Diagnostic X-rays and Biological Effects 30715.2.1 X-ray Production 30715.3 Radiography 30815.4 Fluoroscopy 30915.5 Mammography 30915.6 Diagnostic Nuclear Medicine 31115.6.1 Computed Tomography 31215.6.2 Tracer Studies and Radioisotope Administration 31315.7 Therapeutic Nuclear Medicine 31315.7.1 Radionuclide Administration 31315.8 Medical Accelerator Physics and External Beam Therapy 31615.9 Brachytherapy 31815.10 Facility Design 31815.11 NCRP 49 31815.11.1 Shielding Design 31915.11.2 X-ray Shielding 32015.11.3 Primary Barrier 32015.11.4 Secondary Barrier 32115.11.5 Leakage Radiation 32115.12 NCRP 147 32215.12.1 Unshielded Air Kerma 32315.12.2 Shielding Calculations 32415.13 NCRP 151 32515.13.1 Primary Barrier 32515.13.2 Secondary Barriers 32615.13.3 Scattering 32615.13.4 Leakage 32715.14 Management of Radionuclide Therapy Patients 32715.15 Questions 328References 33516 University Health Physics 33916.1 Overview 33916.2 Research Utilizing Radionuclides 33916.2.1 H-3 33916.2.2 C-14 34016.2.3 P-32 34016.2.4 Co-60 34016.2.5 I-125/I-131 34116.2.6 Cf-252 34116.3 Engineering Considerations 34216.3.1 Engineering Controls 34216.4 Sample Counting 34316.5 Other Research Activities 34416.5.1 Agricultural/Environmental Research 34616.5.2 Research Reactors 34616.5.3 Particle Accelerators 34716.5.4 Materials Research via X-ray Diffraction Techniques 34716.5.5 Fusion Energy Research 34816.6 Overview of an Initial Fusion Power Facility 34916.6.1 General Radiological Characteristics 34916.7 Questions 350References 35717 Fuel Cycle Health Physics 36117.1 Overview 36117.2 Common Isotopes 36117.3 Radiation in Pre-irradiation Fuel Cycle Facilities 36117.4 Nuclear Fuel Cycle 36217.4.1 Uranium Fuel Cycle 36217.4.2 Uranium Ore and Chemical Processing 36217.4.3 Enrichment 36217.4.4 Gaseous Diffusion 36317.4.5 Gas Centrifuge 36317.4.6 AVLIS 36317.4.7 Nuclear Fuel 36417.4.8 Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing 36417.4.9 Thorium Fuel Cycle 36517.4.10 Open and Closed Fuel Cycles 36517.5 Radioactive Waste 36717.6 Criticality 36817.6.1 Critical Mass 36917.6.2 Geometry or Shape 37017.6.3 Enrichment of the Fissile Isotope 37017.6.4 Moderation and Reflection 37017.6.5 Neutron Absorbers or Poison Material 37017.7 Questions 371References 37918 Research Reactor Health Physics 38318.1 Introduction 38318.2 Radionuclides of Concern 38318.3 Reactor Types 38418.3.1 TRIGA® 38418.3.2 Pool 38518.3.3 Tank-in-Pool 38518.3.4 Argonaut Reactors 38618.3.5 Slowpoke 38618.4 Research Reactors Operational Characteristics 38618.5 Reactor Systems and Associated Radionuclide Production 38818.5.1 Fuel 38818.5.2 Coolant and Moderator Water 38818.5.3 Reflectors 38818.6 Dose Control 38918.6.1 Biological Shielding 38918.6.2 H-3 Control 38918.6.3 N-16 Control 38918.6.4 Ar-41 Control 39018.7 Reactor Effluents 39018.7.1 Gaseous Effluents 39118.7.2 Liquid Effluents 39118.8 Questions 391References 39719 Power Reactor Health Physics 39919.1 Overview 39919.2 Generation I, II, III, and IV Reactors 39919.3 Power Reactors 40119.4 Common Power Reactor Radionuclides 40119.5 Pressurized Water Reactors 40219.5.1 Core 40219.5.2 Reactor Vessel 40319.5.3 Primary Coolant System 40319.5.4 Steam System 40319.5.5 Control and Protection Systems 40419.5.6 Engineered Safety Features 40419.6 Boiling Water Reactors 40519.6.1 BWR Reactor Assembly 40519.6.2 BWR Reactor Core 40519.7 Candu Reactors 40519.7.1 General Description 40619.7.2 Control Systems 40619.7.3 Steam System 40619.7.4 Safety Systems 40719.8 High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors 40719.9 Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors 40719.9.1 Fuel Reprocessing 40819.10 Health Physics Hazards 40819.10.1 Buildup of Filter or Demineralizer Activity 40819.10.2 Activation of Reactor Components 40919.10.3 Cladding Failures 41019.10.4 Reactor Coolant System (RCS) Leakage 41119.10.5 Hot Particle Dose 41119.10.6 NCRP 130 Hot Particle Recommendations 41219.10.7 Effluents 41319.11 Radiological Considerations During Reactor Accidents 41419.11.1 Semi-Infinite Cloud Model 41519.12 Questions 416References 42620 Environmental Health Physics 42920.1 Overview 42920.2 Major Radionuclides 42920.3 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material 43020.4 Radon 43020.4.1 Radon Entry and Mitigation 43120.4.2 Radon Kinetics 43120.4.3 Radon Units, Exposure, and Dose 43220.5 Uranium Miner Lung Data 43220.6 Radon Risk Assessments 43320.7 Assessing Radon Exposures 43320.8 Buildup of Radon Inleakage 43520.9 Environmental Monitoring Programs 43520.9.1 Preoperational Monitoring 43520.9.2 Operational Monitoring 43620.9.3 Instrumentation 43620.10 Environmental Releases 43720.10.1 Accumulation of Activity in Ponds and Surfaces 43820.11 Dispersion of Radioactive Gas from a Continuous Source 43920.12 Dispersion of Radioactive Particulates from a Continuous Source 44120.13 Specific Applications of the Dispersion Equations 44220.14 Pathways Associated with Open and Closed Fuel Cycles 44320.14.1 Open Fuel Cycles 44320.14.2 Closed Fuel Cycles 44420.15 Regulatory Guidance For Effluent Pathways 44420.16 ICRP 103 Recommendations for the Protection of the Environment 44520.17 Questions 446References 45221 Accelerator Health Physics 45721.1 Overview 45721.2 Basic Physics 45821.3 Accelerator Facility Overview 45921.3.1 Target/Beam Stop Geometry 45921.3.2 Target Room 45921.3.3 Beam Transport 45921.3.4 Accelerator Complex 46021.4 Major Isotopes Produced 46021.5 Accelerator Types 46021.6 Proton Accelerators 46121.6.1 Low-Energy Proton Accelerators 46121.6.2 Van de Graaff Accelerators 46121.6.3 Cyclotrons 46221.6.4 High-Energy Proton Accelerators 46321.6.4.1 Antiprotons 46421.6.4.2 Proton Reactions 46421.6.4.3 Neutrons 46421.6.4.4 Muons 46521.6.4.5 Hadronic (Nuclear) Cascade 46521.7 Electron Accelerators 46621.7.1 Bremsstrahlung 46721.7.2 Synchrotron Radiation 46821.7.3 Electromagnetic Cascade 46821.7.4 Electron Linac 46921.7.5 Betatrons 47021.7.6 High-Energy Electron Accelerators 47121.8 Light Sources 47121.9 Heavy Ion Accelerators 47221.10 Muon Colliders 47221.10.1 Bounding Neutrino Effective Dose – Linear Muon Collider 47221.10.2 Bounding Neutrino Effective Dose – Circular Muon Collider 47321.11 Radiation Types of Concern 47421.12 Residual Radioactivity 47421.12.1 Activation of Water 47521.12.2 Activation of the Soil 47521.12.3 Activation of Air 47521.13 Shielding 47621.14 Dose Equivalent From The Accelerator Target 47621.15 Beam Current 47721.16 Pulsed Radiation Fields 47721.17 Questions 478References 48522 Non-ionizing Radiation 48922.1 Overview 48922.2 Radiofrequency and Microwave Radiation 48922.2.1 Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves 49122.2.2 Antennas 49122.2.2.1 Stationary Antennas 49222.2.2.2 Rotating Antennas 49522.2.3 Attenuation by Biological Systems 49522.3 Biological Effects 49622.4 Protection Standards 49622.5 Laser Radiation 49922.5.1 Radiometric and Photometric Terms and Units 50022.5.2 Principles and Properties of the Laser 50022.5.3 Biological Effects from Laser Radiation 50322.5.3.1 Eye 50322.5.3.2 Skin 50422.6 Laser Regulations and Standards 50522.6.1 Intrabeam Exposures 50622.6.2 Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance (NOHD) 50722.6.3 Diffuse Reflections 50922.6.4 Nominal Hazard Zone 51022.6.5 Skin Exposures 51022.7 Free Electron Lasers 51122.8 Federal Regulations 51122.9 Laser Safety Calculations 51222.9.1 Limiting Aperture 51222.9.2 Exposure Time/Maximum Permissible Exposure 51222.10 Controlling Laser Radiation 51422.11 Personnel Protective Equipment 51522.12 Spectral Effectiveness of Ultraviolet Radiation 51522.13 Questions 516References 525Part V Answers and Solutions 529Answers and Solutions 531Part VI Appendixes 679Appendix I Mathematical Review 681Appendix II Physical Constants 689Appendix III Particle Properties 691Appendix IV Supplementary Information for Gamma-Ray Dose Calculations 693Appendix V Selected Data on Radionuclides and Decay Relationships 700Appendix VI Electromagnetic and Mechanics Relationships 705Appendix VII Conversion Factors 710Appendix VIII Physical Quantities and Their Units 714Appendix IX Production Equations In Health Physics 718Subject Index 725