Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials, Nanocomposites

Vijay Kumar Thakur is a Lecturer in the School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing Engineering, Cranfield University, UK. Previously he had been a Staff Scientist in the School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering at Washington State University, USA. He spent his postdoctoral study in Materials Science & Engineering at Iowa State University, USA, and gained his PhD in Polymer Chemistry (2009) at the National Institute of Technology, India. He has published more than 90 SCI journal research articles in the field of polymers/materials science and holds one US patent. He has also published about 25 books and 33 book chapters on the advanced state-of-the-art of polymers/materials science with numerous publishers, including Wiley-Scrivener.Manju Kumar Thakur has been working as an Assistant Professor of Chemistry at the Division of Chemistry, Govt. Degree College Sarkaghat Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India since 2010. She received her PhD in Polymer Chemistry from the Chemistry Department at Himachal Pradesh University. She has deep experience in the field of organic chemistry, biopolymers, composites/ nanocomposites, hydrogels, applications of hydrogels in the removal of toxic heavy metal ions, drug delivery etc. She has published more than 30 research papers in peer-reviewed journals, 25 book chapters and co-authored five books all in the field of polymeric materials. Michael R. Kessler is a Professor and Director of the School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering at Washington State University, USA. He is an expert in the mechanics, processing, and characterization of polymer matrix composites and nanocomposites. His honours include the Army Research Office Young Investigator Award, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research Young Investigator Award, the NSF CAREER Award, and the Elsevier Young Composites Researcher Award from the American Society for Composites. He has more than 150 journal articles and 5800 citations, holds 6 patents, published 5 books on the synthesis and characterization of polymer materials, and presented at least 200 talks at national and international meetings.

• Preface xxi1 Virgin and Recycled Polymers Applied to Advanced Nanocomposites 1Luis Claudio Mendes and Sibele Piedade Cestari1.1 Introduction 1References 122 Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites for Water and Wastewater Treatments 15Geoffrey S. Simate2.1 Introduction 152.2 Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites 172.2.1 Introduction 172.2.2 Starch–Carbon Nanotube Composites 172.2.3 Cellulose–Carbon Nanotube Composites 182.2.4 Chitosan–Carbon Nanotubes Composites 202.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites in Water and Wastewater Treatments 232.3.1 Removal of Heavy Metals 232.3.2 Removal of Organic Pollutants 262.4 Concluding Remarks 27References 273 Eco-Friendly Nanocomposites of Chitosan with Natural Extracts, Antimicrobial Agents, and Nanometals 35Iosody Silva-Castro, Pablo Martín-Ramos, Petruta Mihaela Matei, Marciabela Fernandes-Correa, Salvador Hernández-Navarro and Jesús Martín-Gil3.1 Introduction 353.2 Properties and Formation of Chitosan Oligosaccharides 373.3 Nanomaterials from Renewable Materials 393.3.1 Chitosan Combined with Biomaterials 393.3.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked with Natural Extracts 413.3.3 Chitosan Co-Polymerized with Synthetic Species 423.4 Synthesis Methods for Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites 443.4.1 Biological Methods 443.4.2 Physical Methods 453.4.3 Chemical Methods 473.5 Analytical Techniques for the Identification of the Composite Materials 483.6 Advanced Applications of Bionanomaterials Based on Chitosan 493.6.1 Antimicrobial Applications 503.6.2 Biomedical Applications 513.6.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Wound Dressings 513.6.2.2 Drug Delivery 513.6.2.3 Tissue Engineering 513.6.3 Food-Related Applications 523.6.4 Environmental Applications 523.6.4.1 Metal Absorption 523.6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment 523.6.4.3 Agricultural Crops 533.6.5 Applications in Heritage Preservation 533.7 Conclusions 54Acknowledgments 55References 554 Controllable Generation of Renewable Nanofibrils from Green Materials and Their Application in Nanocomposites 61Jinyou Lin, Xiaran Miao, Xiangzhi Zhang and Fenggang Bian4.1 Introduction 614.2 Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 634.2.1 Experimental Section 634.2.2 Results and Discussion 644.2.3 Short Summary 714.3 Controllable Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 724.3.1 Experimental Section 734.3.2 Results and Discussion 744.3.3 Short Summary 864.4 CNF Generation from Other Nonwood Fibers 864.4.1 Experiments Details 864.4.1 Results and Discussion 884.4.3 Summary 964.5 Applications in Nanocomposites 974.5.1 CNF-Reinforced Polymer Composite 974.5.2 Surface Coating as Barrier 1004.5.3 Assembled into Microfiber and Film 1014.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 102Acknowledgments 103References 1035 Nanocellulose and Nanocellulose Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Applications 109Ming-Guo Ma, Yan-Jun Liu and Yan-Yan Dong5.1 Introduction 1095.2 Nanocellulose 1105.3 Nanocellulose Composites 1175.3.1 Hydrogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 1175.3.2 Aerogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 1205.3.3 Electrode Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 1245.3.4 Photocatalytic Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 1245.3.5 Antibacterial Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 1255.3.6 Sustained Release Applications Based on Nanocellulose Composites 1255.3.7 Sensors Based on the Nanocellulose Composites 1275.3.8 Mechanical Properties 1275.3.9 Biodegradation Properties 1285.3.10 Virus Removal 1295.3.11 Porous Materials 1295.4 Summary 130Acknowledgments 131References 1316 Poly(Lactic Acid) Biopolymer Composites and Nanocomposites for Biomedicals and Biopackaging Applications 135S.C. Agwuncha, E.R. Sadiku, I.D. Ibrahim, B.A. Aderibigbe, S.J. Owonubi O. Agboola, A. Babul Reddy, M. Bandla, K. Varaprasad, B.L. Bayode and S.S. Ray6.1 Introduction 1356.2 Preparations of PLA 1376.3 Biocomposite 1386.4 PLA Biocomposites 1396.5 Nanocomposites 1406.6 PLA Nanocomposites 1406.7 Biomaterials 1416.8 PLA Biomaterials 1426.9 Processing Advantages of PLA Biomaterials 1436.10 PLA as Packaging Materials 1456.11 Biomedical Application of PLA 1466.12 Medical Implants 1466.13 Some Clinical Applications of PLA Devices 1476.13.1 Fibers 1476.13.2 Meshes 1496.13.3 Bone Fixation Devices 1506.13.4 Stress-Shielding Effect 1516.13.5 Piezoelectric Effect 1516.13.6 Screws, Pins, and Rods 1526.13.7 Plates 1536.13.8 Microspheres, Microcapsules, and Thin Coatings 1546.14 PLA Packaging Applications 1556.15 Conclusion 156References 1577 Impact of Nanotechnology on Water Treatment: Carbon Nanotube and Graphene 171Mohd Amil Usmani, Imran Khan, Aamir H. Bhat and M.K. Mohamad Haafiz7.1 Introduction 1717.2 Threats to Water Treatment 1737.3 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment 1737.3.1 Nanomaterials for Water Treatment 1757.3.2 Nanomaterials and Membrane Filtration 1767.3.3 Metal Nanostructured Materials 1787.3.4 Naturally Occurring Materials 1797.3.5 Carbon Nano Compounds 1807.3.5.1 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification 1817.3.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalysts or Co-Catalysts 1857.3.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalysis 1867.3.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Filters as Anti-Microbial Materials 1887.3.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Seawater Desalination 1917.4 Polymer Nanocomposites 1927.4.1 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Water Treatment Membranes 1927.4.2 Dendrimers 1937.5 Global Impact of Nanotechnology and Human Health 1957.6 Conclusions 196Acknowledgments 196References 1978 Nanomaterials in Energy Generation 207Paulraj Manidurai and Ramkumar Sekar8.1 Introduction 2078.1.1 Increasing of Surface Energy and Tension 2098.1.2 Decrease of Thermal Conductivity 2098.1.3 The Blue Shift Effect 2108.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Biology 2118.3 In Solar Cells 2118.3.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 2128.3.2 Composites from Renewable Materials for Photoanode 2138.3.3 Composites from Renewable Materials for Electrolyte 2148.3.4 Composites from Renewable Materials for Organic Solar Cells 2158.4 Visible-Light Active Photocatalyst 2168.5 Energy Storage 2178.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage 2178.5.2 Electrochemical Energy Storage 2178.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvest and Storage Using Nanogenerator 2188.7 Nanotechnology on Biogas Production 2208.7.1 Impact of Metal Oxide Nanoadditives on the Biogas Production 2238.8 Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities Using Nanoparticles 2238.8.1 Antibacterial Activity 2238.8.2 Antioxidant Activity 2248.9 Conclusion 224References 2249 Sustainable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastics for Food-Packaging Applications 229Ana M. Díez-Pascual9.1 Introduction 2299.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications 2319.2.1 Synthesis 2319.2.2 Structure 2329.2.3 Properties 2339.2.4 Applications 2349.3 ZnO Nanofillers: Structure, Properties, Synthesis, and Applications 2359.3.1 Structure 2359.3.2 Properties 2359.3.3 Synthesis 2369.3.4 Applications 2379.4 Materials and Nanocomposite Processing 2399.5 Characterization of PHA-Based Nanocomposites 2399.5.1 Morphology 2399.5.2 Crystalline Structure 2419.5.3 FTIR Spectra 2429.5.4 Crystallization and Melting Behavior 2439.5.5 Thermal Stability 2449.5.6 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 2459.5.7 Static Mechanical Properties 2479.5.8 Barrier Properties 2499.5.9 Migration Properties 2509.5.10 Antibacterial Properties 2519.6 Conclusions and Outlook 253References 25310 PLA Nanocomposites: A Promising Material for Future from Renewable Resources 259Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, J. Fowsiya, D. Devi Priya and G. Madhumitha10.1 Introduction 25910.1.1 Nanotechnology 25910.1.2 Nanocomposites 26010.2 Biopolymers 26010.2.1 Structural Formulas of Few Biopolymers 26110.2.2 Polylactide Polymers 26110.3 PLA Production 26210.3.1 PLA Properties 26310.3.1.1 Rheological Properties 26310.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties 26310.4 PLA-Based Nanocomposites 26410.4.1 Preparation of PLA Nanocomposites 26410.4.2 Recent Research on PLA Nanocomposites 26410.4.3 Application of PLA Nanocomposites 26510.5 PLA Nanocomposites 26510.5.1 PLA/Layered Silicate Nanocomposite 26610.5.2 PLA/Carbon Nanotubes Nanocomposites 26810.5.3 PLA/Starch Nanocomposites 26810.5.4 PLA/Cellulose Nanocomposites 27010.6 Conclusion 271References 27111 Biocomposites from Renewable Resources: Preparation and Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 275A. Babul Reddy, B. Manjula, T. Jayaramudu, S.J. Owonubi, E.R. Sadiku, O. Agboola, V. Sivanjineyulu and Gomotsegang F. Molelekwa11.1 Introduction 27611.2 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Chitosan and its Nanocomposites 27811.3 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Montmorillonite 28311.4 Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 28411.5 Preparation Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 28611.6 Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 29011.6.1 Food-Packaging Applications 29011.6.2 Electroanalytical Applications 29111.6.3 Tissue-Engineering Applications 29211.6.4 Electrochemical Sensors Applications 29211.6.5 Wastewater Treatment Applications 29311.6.6 Drug Delivery Systems 29411.7 Conclusions 295Acknowledgment 296References 29612 Nanomaterials: An Advanced and Versatile Nanoadditive for Kraft and Paper Industries 305Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli, Samira Bagheri and Negar Mansouri12.1 An Overview: Paper Industries 30512.1.1 Manufacturing: Paper Industries 30612.1.2 Nanotechnology 30612.1.3 Nanotechnology: Paper Industries 30712.2 Nanobleaching Agents: Paper Industries 30712.2.1 Nano Calcium Silicate Particle 30712.3 Nanosizing Agents: Paper Industries 30812.3.1 Nanosilica/Hybrid 30812.3.2 Nano Titanium Oxide/Hybrid 30812.4 Nano Wet/Dry Strength Agents: Paper Industries 30912.4.1 Nanocellulose 30912.5 Nanopigment: Paper Industries 31112.5.1 Nanokaolin 31212.5.2 Nano ZnO/Hybrid 31212.5.3 Nanocarbonate 31312.6 Nanoretention Agents: Paper Industries 31312.6.1 Nanozeolite 31312.6.2 Nano TiO2 31312.7 Nanomineral Filler: Paper Industries 31412.7.1 Nanoclay 31512.7.2 Nano Calcium Carbonate 31512.7.3 Nano TiO2/Hybrid 31512.8 Nano Superconductor Agents: Paper Industries 31512.8.1 Nano ZnO 31512.9 Nanodispersion Agents: Paper Industries 31612.9.1 Nanopolymer 31612.10 Certain Challenges Associated with Nanoadditives 31712.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective 317Acknowledgments 318Conflict of Interests 318References 31813 Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Polylactic Acid 327Mihai Cosmin Corobea, Zina Vuluga, Dorel Florea, Florin Miculescu and Stefan Ioan Voicu13.1 Introduction 32713.2 Obtaining Composites and Nanocomposite Based on PLA 32913.2.1 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Composites Based on PLA 33213.2.2 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Nanocomposite Based on PLA 33613.2.3 Applications 35113.3 Conclusions 352Acknowledgment 353References 35314 Cellulose-Containing Scaffolds Fabricated by Electrospinning: Applications in Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery 361Alex López-Córdoba, Guillermo R. Castro and Silvia Goyanes14.1 Introduction 36114.2 Cellulose: Structure and Major Sources 36214.3 Cellulose Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning 36414.3.1 Electrospinning Set-Up 36414.3.2 Modified Electrospinning Processes 36514.3.3 Electrospinnability of Cellulose and its Derivatives 36614.4 Cellulose-Containing Nanocomposite Fabricated by Electrospinning 36914.4.1 Electrospun Nanocomposites Reinforced with Nanocellulosic Materials 37014.4.2 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Blends of Cellulose or its Derivatives with Nanoparticles 37014.4.3 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose/Polymer Blends 37314.4.4 Electrospun All-Cellulose Composites 37414.5 Applications of Cellulose-Containing Electrospun Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering 37514.6 Cellulose/Polymer Electrospun Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 37914.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 382Acknowledgments 382References 38215 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites for Environmental Applications 389Ibrahim M. El-Sherbiny and Isra H. Ali15.1 Introduction 38915.1.1 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Origin 39015.1.2 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Structure 39015.1.3 Biopolymers as Promising Eco-Friendly Materials 39015.2 Biopolymers: Chemistry and Properties 39115.2.1 Polysaccharides 39115.2.1.1 Starch 39115.2.1.2 Cellulose 39315.2.1.3 Chitin 39515.2.2 Alginate 39715.2.2.1 Origin 39715.2.3 Proteins 39815.2.3.1 Albumin 39815.2.3.2 Collagen 39815.2.3.3 Gelatin 39915.2.3.4 Silk Proteins 39915.2.3.5 Keratin 40015.2.4 Microbial Polyesters 40015.2.4.1 Polyhydroxylalkanoates 40015.3 Preparation Techniques of Polymer Nanocomposites 40015.3.1 Direct Compounding 40015.3.2 In Situ Synthesis 40115.3.3 Other Techniques 40215.3.3.1 Electrospinning 40315.3.3.2 Self-Assembly 40315.3.3.3 Phase Separation 40315.3.3.4 Template Synthesis 40315.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites 40315.5 Environmental Application of Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites 40415.5.1 Pollutants Removal: Catalytic and Redox Degradation 40415.5.1.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles 40515.5.1.2 Zero-Valent Metals Nanoparticles 40515.5.1.3 Bimetallic Nanoparticles 40615.5.2 Pollutants Removal: Adsorption 40615.5.3 Pollutants Sensing 40715.5.4 Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites in Green Chemistry 40715.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 409References 40916 Calcium Phosphate Nanocomposites for Biomedical and Dental Applications: Recent Developments 423Andy H. Choi and Besim Ben-Nissan16.1 Introduction 42316.2 Hydroxyapatite 42616.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Coatings 42816.3.1 Collagen 42816.3.2 Chitosan 42916.3.3 Liposomes 43016.3.4 Synthetic Polymers 43016.4 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 43116.4.1 Calcium Phosphate–Chitosan Nanocomposites 43316.4.2 Calcium Phosphate–Collagen Nanocomposites 43416.4.3 Calcium Phosphate–Silk Fibroin Nanocomposites 43616.4.4 Calcium Phosphate–Cellulose Nanocomposites 43716.4.5 Calcium Phosphate–Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites 43716.5 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 43816.6 Concluding Remarks 443References 44417 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications 451Vinod Saharan, Ajay Pal, Ramesh Raliya and Pratim Biswas17.1 Introduction 45117.2 Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer 45217.2.1 Degree of Deacetylation 45317.2.2 Chitosan Depolymerization 45317.3 Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 45417.3.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 45517.3.1.1 Ionic Gelation Method 45517.4 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites 45617.4.1 Chitosan–Zn Nanocomposite 45617.4.2 Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite 45617.4.3 Application of Cu and Zn–Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite 45917.5 Other Natural Biopolymer in Comparison with Chitosan 46117.6 Conclusion 462References 46218 Multicarboxyl-Functionalized Nanocellulose/Nanobentonite Composite for the Effective Removal and Recovery of Uranium (VI), Thorium (IV), and Cobalt (II) from Nuclear Industry Effluents and Sea Water 465T.S. Anirudhan and J.R. Deepa18.1 Introduction 46518.2 Materials and Methods 46818.2.1 Materials 46818.2.2 Equipment and Methods of Characterization 46818.2.3 Preparation of Adsorbent 46818.2.4 Adsorption Experiments 46918.2.5 Desorption Experiments 47018.2.6 Grafting Density 47018.2.7 Determination of Functional Groups 47018.2.8 Point of Zero Charge 47118.3 Results and Discussion 47118.3.1 FTIR Analysis 47118.3.2 XRD Analysis 47318.3.3 Point of Zero Charge, Degree of Grafting, and –COOHDetermination 47418.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis 47518.3.5 Effect of pH on Metal Ions Adsorption 47518.3.6 Adsorption Kinetics 47718.3.7 Adsorption Isotherm 47918.3.8 Adsorption Thermodynamics 48018.3.9 Reuse of the Adsorbent 48118.3.10 Test of the Adsorbent with Nuclear Industry Wastewater and Sea Water 48218.4 Conclusions 483Acknowledgments 483References 483