Jay Siegel, Emeritus Professor of Forensic Science, Michigan State UniversityJay Siegel is Director of the Forensic and Investigative Sciences Program at Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis and Chair of the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology. He holds a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from George Washington University. He worked for 3 years at the Virginia Bureau of Forensic Sciences, analyzing drugs, fire residues and trace evidence. From 1980 to 2004 he was professor of forensic chemistry and Director of the forensic science program at Michigan State University in the School of Criminal Justice.He is Editor in Chief of the Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, author of Forensic Science: A Beginner's Guide and Fundamentals of Forensic Science and has over 30 publications in forensic science journals. Dr. Siegel was awarded the 2005 Paul Kirk Award for lifetime achievement in forensic science. In February 2009, he was named Distinguished Fellow by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. In April 2009 he was named the Distinguished Alumni Scholar Award by his alma mater, George Washington University.

• About the Editor xiiContributors xiiiSeries preface xvPreface xvi1 Drugs of abuse 1Niamh Nic Daéid1.1 Introduction 11.2 Law and legislation 21.3 Sampling 41.3.1 Random sampling and representative sampling 61.3.2 Arbitrary sampling 71.3.3 Statistical sampling methods 81.4 Specific drug types 91.4.1 Cannabis 91.4.2 Heroin 141.4.3 Cocaine 221.4.4 Amphetamine‐type stimulants 271.4.5 New psychoactive substances 331.5 Conclusions 36Acknowledgements 36References 362 Textiles 40Max Houck2.1 Introduction 402.2 A science of reconstruction 402.2.1 Classification 412.2.2 Comparison 422.2.3 Transfer and persistence 432.3 Textiles 432.3.1 Information 442.3.2 Morphology 452.4 Natural fibers 482.4.1 Animal fibers 482.4.2 Plant fibers 512.5 Manufactured fibers 522.6 Yarns and fabrics 552.6.1 Fabric construction 562.6.2 Finishes 592.7 Fiber types 592.7.1 Acetate 592.7.2 Acrylic 592.7.3 Aramids 602.7.4 Modacrylic 602.7.5 Nylon 612.7.6 Olefins (polypropylene and polyethylene) 612.7.7 Polyester 622.7.8 Rayon 622.7.9 Spandex 652.7.10 Triacetate 662.7.11 Bicomponent fibers 662.8 Chemistry 672.8.1 General analysis 672.8.2 Instrumental analysis 682.8.3 Color 692.8.4 Raman spectroscopy 702.8.5 Interpretation 712.9 The future 72References 723 Paint and coatings examination 75Paul Kirkbride3.1 Introduction 753.2 Paint chemistry 763.2.1 Binders 763.2.2 Dyes and pigments 863.2.3 Additives 893.3 Automotive paint application 913.4 Forensic examination of paint 923.4.1 General considerations 923.4.2 Microscopy 953.4.3 Vibrational spectrometry 963.4.4 SEM‐EDX and XRF 1063.4.5 Pyrolytic techniques 1113.4.6 Color analysis 1163.5 Paint evidence evaluation and expert opinion 120References 1284 Forensic fire debris analysis 135Reta Newman4.1 Introduction 1354.2 Process overview 1354.3 Sample collection 1364.4 Ignitable liquid classification 1374.5 Petroleum‐based ignitable liquids 1444.6 Non‐petroleum‐based ignitable liquids 1604.7 Sample preparation 1614.8 Sample analysis and data interpretation 1664.9 Summary 172References 1735 Explosives 175John Goodpaster5.1 The nature of an explosion 1755.1.1 Types of explosions 1755.1.2 Explosive effects 1765.2 Physical and chemical properties of explosives 1805.2.1 Low explosives 1815.2.2 High explosives 1865.3 Protocols for the forensic examination of explosives and explosive devices 1925.3.1 Recognition of evidence 1925.3.2 Portable technology and on‐scene analysis 1935.3.3 In the laboratory 1945.4 Chemical analysis of explosives 2005.4.1 Consensus standards (TWGFEX) 2015.4.2 Chemical tests 2035.4.3 X‐ray techniques 2045.4.4 Spectroscopy 2075.4.5 Separations 2125.4.6 Gas chromatography 2135.4.7 Mass spectrometry 2155.4.8 Provenance and attribution determinations 2195.5 Ongoing research 221Acknowledgements 222References 222Further reading 2266 Analysis of glass evidence 228Jose Almirall and Tatiana Trejos6.1 Introduction to glass examinations and comparisons 2286.2 Glass the material 2316.2.1 Physical and chemical properties 2316.2.2 Manufacturing 2336.2.3 Fractures and their significance 2366.2.4 Forensic considerations: Transfer and persistence of glass 2386.3 A brief history of glass examinations 2416.4 Glass examinations and comparison standard laboratory practices 2426.4.1 Physical measurements 2436.4.2 Optical measurements 2446.4.3 Chemical measurements: elemental analysis 2476.5 Interpretation of glass evidence examinations and comparisons 2566.5.1 Defining the match criteria 2566.5.2 Descriptive statistics 2566.5.3 Match criteria for refractive index measurements 2576.5.4 Informing power of analytical methods forming the opinion 2606.5.5 Report writing and testimony 2626.6 Case examples 2636.6.1 Case 1: Hit‐and‐run case 2636.6.2 Case 2: Multiple transfer of glass in breaking‐and‐entry case 2646.7 Conclusions 265References 2667 The forensic comparison of soil and geologic microtraces 273Richard E. Bisbing7.1 Soil and geologic microtraces as trace evidence 2737.2 Comparison process 2747.3 Developing expertise 2787.4 Genesis of soil 2797.5 Genesis of geologic microtraces 2847.6 Collecting questioned samples of unknown origin 2877.7 Collecting soil samples of known origin 2887.8 Initial comparisons 2907.9 Color comparison 2907.10 Texture comparison 2937.11 Mineral comparison 2977.12 Modal analysis 3017.13 Automated instrumental modal analysis 3087.14 Ecological constituents 3107.15 Anthropogenic constituents 3127.16 Reporting comparison results 3127.17 Future directions and research 314Acknowledgments 314References 315Further reading 3168 Chemical analysis for the scientific examination of questioned documents 318Gerald M. LaPorte8.1 Static approach 3208.2 Dynamic approach 3248.3 Ink composition 3248.4 Examinations 3288.4.1 Physical examinations 3298.4.2 Optical examinations 3328.4.3 Chemical examinations 3338.4.4 Paper examinations 3398.5 Questioned documents crime scenes and evidential considerations 3428.5.1 How was the questioned document produced? 3428.5.2 What evidence can be used to associate a questioned document with the crime scene and/or victim? 3438.5.3 Are there other forensic examinations that can be performed? 3458.5.4 Demonstrating that a suspect altered a document 3468.6 Interpreting results and rendering conclusions 347References 3509 Chemical methods for the detection of latent fingermarks 354Amanda A. Frick, Patrick Fritz, and Simon W. Lewis9.1 Introduction 3549.2 Sources of latent fingermark residue 3559.2.1 Aqueous components 3569.2.2 Lipid components 3579.2.3 Sources of compositional variation 3599.3 Chemical processing of latent fingermarks 3619.3.1 Amino acid sensitive reagents 3619.3.2 Reagents based on colloidal metals 3709.3.3 Lipid‐sensitive reagents 3779.3.4 Other techniques 3839.4 Experimental considerations for latent fingermark chemistry research 3849.5 Conclusions and future directions 387Acknowledgements 388References 388Further reading 39810 Chemical methods in firearms analysis 400Walter F. Rowe10.1 Introduction 40010.2 Basic firearms examination 40010.2.1 Cleaning bullets and cartridges 40210.2.2 Analysis of bullet lead 40410.2.3 Serial number restoration 40610.3 Shooting incident reconstruction 40810.3.1 Muzzle‐to‐target determinations 41110.3.2 Firearm primers 41610.3.3 Collection of gunshot residue 42510.4 Conclusion 433References 43311 Forensic microscopy 439Christopher S. Palenik11.1 The microscope as a tool 43911.2 Motivation 44011.2.1 Intimidation 44211.2.2 Limitations 44211.3 Scale 44211.3.1 Scale and magnification 44311.3.2 Noting scale 44311.3.3 Analytical volume and limits of detection 44311.4 Finding 44511.4.1 Spatial resolution 44511.4.2 Recovery resolution 44711.4.3 Stereomicroscope 44711.5 Preparing 44811.5.1 Preservation and documentation 44811.5.2 Isolation 45011.5.3 Mounting 45111.6 Looking 45511.6.1 Light microscopy 45611.6.2 Scanning electron microscopy 45711.7 Analyzing 45811.7.1 Polarized light microscopy 45811.7.2 Energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy 46211.7.3 FTIR and Raman spectroscopy 46411.7.4 Other methods 46511.8 Thinking 46511.9 Thanking 467References 46712 Chemometrics 469Ruth Smith12.1 Introduction 46912.2 Chromatograms and spectra as multivariate data 47012.3 Data preprocessing 47012.3.1 Baseline correction 47112.3.2 Smoothing 47312.3.3 Retention‐time alignment 47312.3.4 Normalization and scaling 47512.4 Unsupervised pattern recognition 47712.4.1 Hierarchical cluster analysis 47812.4.2 Principal components analysis 48012.5 Supervised pattern recognition procedures 48512.5.1 k‐Nearest neighbors 48612.5.2 Discriminant analysis 48712.5.3 Soft independent modeling of class analogy 49212.5.4 Model validation 49312.6 Applications of chemometric procedures in forensic science 49412.6.1 Fire debris and explosives 49512.6.2 Controlled substances and counterfeit medicines 49612.6.3 Trace evidence 49712.6.4 Impression evidence 49912.7 Conclusions 499Acknowledgements 500References 500Index 504

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Jay Siegel, Emeritus Professor of Forensic Science, Michigan State UniversityJay Siegel is Director of the Forensic and Investigative Sciences Program at Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis and Chair of the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology. He holds a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from George Washington University. He worked for 3 years at the Virginia Bureau of Forensic Sciences, analyzing drugs, fire residues and trace evidence. From 1980 to 2004 he was professor of forensic chemistry and Director of the forensic science program at Michigan State University in the School of Criminal Justice.He is Editor in Chief of the Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, author of Forensic Science: A Beginner's Guide and Fundamentals of Forensic Science and has over 30 publications in forensic science journals. Dr. Siegel was awarded the 2005 Paul Kirk Award for lifetime achievement in forensic science. In February 2009, he was named Distinguished Fellow by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. In April 2009 he was named the Distinguished Alumni Scholar Award by his alma mater, George Washington University.

• About the Editor xiiContributors xiiiSeries preface xvPreface xvi1 Drugs of abuse 1Niamh Nic Daéid1.1 Introduction 11.2 Law and legislation 21.3 Sampling 41.3.1 Random sampling and representative sampling 61.3.2 Arbitrary sampling 71.3.3 Statistical sampling methods 81.4 Specific drug types 91.4.1 Cannabis 91.4.2 Heroin 141.4.3 Cocaine 221.4.4 Amphetamine‐type stimulants 271.4.5 New psychoactive substances 331.5 Conclusions 36Acknowledgements 36References 362 Textiles 40Max Houck2.1 Introduction 402.2 A science of reconstruction 402.2.1 Classification 412.2.2 Comparison 422.2.3 Transfer and persistence 432.3 Textiles 432.3.1 Information 442.3.2 Morphology 452.4 Natural fibers 482.4.1 Animal fibers 482.4.2 Plant fibers 512.5 Manufactured fibers 522.6 Yarns and fabrics 552.6.1 Fabric construction 562.6.2 Finishes 592.7 Fiber types 592.7.1 Acetate 592.7.2 Acrylic 592.7.3 Aramids 602.7.4 Modacrylic 602.7.5 Nylon 612.7.6 Olefins (polypropylene and polyethylene) 612.7.7 Polyester 622.7.8 Rayon 622.7.9 Spandex 652.7.10 Triacetate 662.7.11 Bicomponent fibers 662.8 Chemistry 672.8.1 General analysis 672.8.2 Instrumental analysis 682.8.3 Color 692.8.4 Raman spectroscopy 702.8.5 Interpretation 712.9 The future 72References 723 Paint and coatings examination 75Paul Kirkbride3.1 Introduction 753.2 Paint chemistry 763.2.1 Binders 763.2.2 Dyes and pigments 863.2.3 Additives 893.3 Automotive paint application 913.4 Forensic examination of paint 923.4.1 General considerations 923.4.2 Microscopy 953.4.3 Vibrational spectrometry 963.4.4 SEM‐EDX and XRF 1063.4.5 Pyrolytic techniques 1113.4.6 Color analysis 1163.5 Paint evidence evaluation and expert opinion 120References 1284 Forensic fire debris analysis 135Reta Newman4.1 Introduction 1354.2 Process overview 1354.3 Sample collection 1364.4 Ignitable liquid classification 1374.5 Petroleum‐based ignitable liquids 1444.6 Non‐petroleum‐based ignitable liquids 1604.7 Sample preparation 1614.8 Sample analysis and data interpretation 1664.9 Summary 172References 1735 Explosives 175John Goodpaster5.1 The nature of an explosion 1755.1.1 Types of explosions 1755.1.2 Explosive effects 1765.2 Physical and chemical properties of explosives 1805.2.1 Low explosives 1815.2.2 High explosives 1865.3 Protocols for the forensic examination of explosives and explosive devices 1925.3.1 Recognition of evidence 1925.3.2 Portable technology and on‐scene analysis 1935.3.3 In the laboratory 1945.4 Chemical analysis of explosives 2005.4.1 Consensus standards (TWGFEX) 2015.4.2 Chemical tests 2035.4.3 X‐ray techniques 2045.4.4 Spectroscopy 2075.4.5 Separations 2125.4.6 Gas chromatography 2135.4.7 Mass spectrometry 2155.4.8 Provenance and attribution determinations 2195.5 Ongoing research 221Acknowledgements 222References 222Further reading 2266 Analysis of glass evidence 228Jose Almirall and Tatiana Trejos6.1 Introduction to glass examinations and comparisons 2286.2 Glass the material 2316.2.1 Physical and chemical properties 2316.2.2 Manufacturing 2336.2.3 Fractures and their significance 2366.2.4 Forensic considerations: Transfer and persistence of glass 2386.3 A brief history of glass examinations 2416.4 Glass examinations and comparison standard laboratory practices 2426.4.1 Physical measurements 2436.4.2 Optical measurements 2446.4.3 Chemical measurements: elemental analysis 2476.5 Interpretation of glass evidence examinations and comparisons 2566.5.1 Defining the match criteria 2566.5.2 Descriptive statistics 2566.5.3 Match criteria for refractive index measurements 2576.5.4 Informing power of analytical methods forming the opinion 2606.5.5 Report writing and testimony 2626.6 Case examples 2636.6.1 Case 1: Hit‐and‐run case 2636.6.2 Case 2: Multiple transfer of glass in breaking‐and‐entry case 2646.7 Conclusions 265References 2667 The forensic comparison of soil and geologic microtraces 273Richard E. Bisbing7.1 Soil and geologic microtraces as trace evidence 2737.2 Comparison process 2747.3 Developing expertise 2787.4 Genesis of soil 2797.5 Genesis of geologic microtraces 2847.6 Collecting questioned samples of unknown origin 2877.7 Collecting soil samples of known origin 2887.8 Initial comparisons 2907.9 Color comparison 2907.10 Texture comparison 2937.11 Mineral comparison 2977.12 Modal analysis 3017.13 Automated instrumental modal analysis 3087.14 Ecological constituents 3107.15 Anthropogenic constituents 3127.16 Reporting comparison results 3127.17 Future directions and research 314Acknowledgments 314References 315Further reading 3168 Chemical analysis for the scientific examination of questioned documents 318Gerald M. LaPorte8.1 Static approach 3208.2 Dynamic approach 3248.3 Ink composition 3248.4 Examinations 3288.4.1 Physical examinations 3298.4.2 Optical examinations 3328.4.3 Chemical examinations 3338.4.4 Paper examinations 3398.5 Questioned documents crime scenes and evidential considerations 3428.5.1 How was the questioned document produced? 3428.5.2 What evidence can be used to associate a questioned document with the crime scene and/or victim? 3438.5.3 Are there other forensic examinations that can be performed? 3458.5.4 Demonstrating that a suspect altered a document 3468.6 Interpreting results and rendering conclusions 347References 3509 Chemical methods for the detection of latent fingermarks 354Amanda A. Frick, Patrick Fritz, and Simon W. Lewis9.1 Introduction 3549.2 Sources of latent fingermark residue 3559.2.1 Aqueous components 3569.2.2 Lipid components 3579.2.3 Sources of compositional variation 3599.3 Chemical processing of latent fingermarks 3619.3.1 Amino acid sensitive reagents 3619.3.2 Reagents based on colloidal metals 3709.3.3 Lipid‐sensitive reagents 3779.3.4 Other techniques 3839.4 Experimental considerations for latent fingermark chemistry research 3849.5 Conclusions and future directions 387Acknowledgements 388References 388Further reading 39810 Chemical methods in firearms analysis 400Walter F. Rowe10.1 Introduction 40010.2 Basic firearms examination 40010.2.1 Cleaning bullets and cartridges 40210.2.2 Analysis of bullet lead 40410.2.3 Serial number restoration 40610.3 Shooting incident reconstruction 40810.3.1 Muzzle‐to‐target determinations 41110.3.2 Firearm primers 41610.3.3 Collection of gunshot residue 42510.4 Conclusion 433References 43311 Forensic microscopy 439Christopher S. Palenik11.1 The microscope as a tool 43911.2 Motivation 44011.2.1 Intimidation 44211.2.2 Limitations 44211.3 Scale 44211.3.1 Scale and magnification 44311.3.2 Noting scale 44311.3.3 Analytical volume and limits of detection 44311.4 Finding 44511.4.1 Spatial resolution 44511.4.2 Recovery resolution 44711.4.3 Stereomicroscope 44711.5 Preparing 44811.5.1 Preservation and documentation 44811.5.2 Isolation 45011.5.3 Mounting 45111.6 Looking 45511.6.1 Light microscopy 45611.6.2 Scanning electron microscopy 45711.7 Analyzing 45811.7.1 Polarized light microscopy 45811.7.2 Energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy 46211.7.3 FTIR and Raman spectroscopy 46411.7.4 Other methods 46511.8 Thinking 46511.9 Thanking 467References 46712 Chemometrics 469Ruth Smith12.1 Introduction 46912.2 Chromatograms and spectra as multivariate data 47012.3 Data preprocessing 47012.3.1 Baseline correction 47112.3.2 Smoothing 47312.3.3 Retention‐time alignment 47312.3.4 Normalization and scaling 47512.4 Unsupervised pattern recognition 47712.4.1 Hierarchical cluster analysis 47812.4.2 Principal components analysis 48012.5 Supervised pattern recognition procedures 48512.5.1 k‐Nearest neighbors 48612.5.2 Discriminant analysis 48712.5.3 Soft independent modeling of class analogy 49212.5.4 Model validation 49312.6 Applications of chemometric procedures in forensic science 49412.6.1 Fire debris and explosives 49512.6.2 Controlled substances and counterfeit medicines 49612.6.3 Trace evidence 49712.6.4 Impression evidence 49912.7 Conclusions 499Acknowledgements 500References 500Index 504

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Jay Siegel, Emeritus Professor of Forensic Science, Michigan State UniversityJay Siegel is Director of the Forensic and Investigative Sciences Program at Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis and Chair of the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology. He holds a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from George Washington University. He worked for 3 years at the Virginia Bureau of Forensic Sciences, analyzing drugs, fire residues and trace evidence. From 1980 to 2004 he was professor of forensic chemistry and Director of the forensic science program at Michigan State University in the School of Criminal Justice.He is Editor in Chief of the Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, author of Forensic Science: A Beginner's Guide and Fundamentals of Forensic Science and has over 30 publications in forensic science journals. Dr. Siegel was awarded the 2005 Paul Kirk Award for lifetime achievement in forensic science. In February 2009, he was named Distinguished Fellow by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. In April 2009 he was named the Distinguished Alumni Scholar Award by his alma mater, George Washington University.

• About the Editor xiiContributors xiiiSeries preface xvPreface xvi1 Drugs of abuse 1Niamh Nic Daéid1.1 Introduction 11.2 Law and legislation 21.3 Sampling 41.3.1 Random sampling and representative sampling 61.3.2 Arbitrary sampling 71.3.3 Statistical sampling methods 81.4 Specific drug types 91.4.1 Cannabis 91.4.2 Heroin 141.4.3 Cocaine 221.4.4 Amphetamine‐type stimulants 271.4.5 New psychoactive substances 331.5 Conclusions 36Acknowledgements 36References 362 Textiles 40Max Houck2.1 Introduction 402.2 A science of reconstruction 402.2.1 Classification 412.2.2 Comparison 422.2.3 Transfer and persistence 432.3 Textiles 432.3.1 Information 442.3.2 Morphology 452.4 Natural fibers 482.4.1 Animal fibers 482.4.2 Plant fibers 512.5 Manufactured fibers 522.6 Yarns and fabrics 552.6.1 Fabric construction 562.6.2 Finishes 592.7 Fiber types 592.7.1 Acetate 592.7.2 Acrylic 592.7.3 Aramids 602.7.4 Modacrylic 602.7.5 Nylon 612.7.6 Olefins (polypropylene and polyethylene) 612.7.7 Polyester 622.7.8 Rayon 622.7.9 Spandex 652.7.10 Triacetate 662.7.11 Bicomponent fibers 662.8 Chemistry 672.8.1 General analysis 672.8.2 Instrumental analysis 682.8.3 Color 692.8.4 Raman spectroscopy 702.8.5 Interpretation 712.9 The future 72References 723 Paint and coatings examination 75Paul Kirkbride3.1 Introduction 753.2 Paint chemistry 763.2.1 Binders 763.2.2 Dyes and pigments 863.2.3 Additives 893.3 Automotive paint application 913.4 Forensic examination of paint 923.4.1 General considerations 923.4.2 Microscopy 953.4.3 Vibrational spectrometry 963.4.4 SEM‐EDX and XRF 1063.4.5 Pyrolytic techniques 1113.4.6 Color analysis 1163.5 Paint evidence evaluation and expert opinion 120References 1284 Forensic fire debris analysis 135Reta Newman4.1 Introduction 1354.2 Process overview 1354.3 Sample collection 1364.4 Ignitable liquid classification 1374.5 Petroleum‐based ignitable liquids 1444.6 Non‐petroleum‐based ignitable liquids 1604.7 Sample preparation 1614.8 Sample analysis and data interpretation 1664.9 Summary 172References 1735 Explosives 175John Goodpaster5.1 The nature of an explosion 1755.1.1 Types of explosions 1755.1.2 Explosive effects 1765.2 Physical and chemical properties of explosives 1805.2.1 Low explosives 1815.2.2 High explosives 1865.3 Protocols for the forensic examination of explosives and explosive devices 1925.3.1 Recognition of evidence 1925.3.2 Portable technology and on‐scene analysis 1935.3.3 In the laboratory 1945.4 Chemical analysis of explosives 2005.4.1 Consensus standards (TWGFEX) 2015.4.2 Chemical tests 2035.4.3 X‐ray techniques 2045.4.4 Spectroscopy 2075.4.5 Separations 2125.4.6 Gas chromatography 2135.4.7 Mass spectrometry 2155.4.8 Provenance and attribution determinations 2195.5 Ongoing research 221Acknowledgements 222References 222Further reading 2266 Analysis of glass evidence 228Jose Almirall and Tatiana Trejos6.1 Introduction to glass examinations and comparisons 2286.2 Glass the material 2316.2.1 Physical and chemical properties 2316.2.2 Manufacturing 2336.2.3 Fractures and their significance 2366.2.4 Forensic considerations: Transfer and persistence of glass 2386.3 A brief history of glass examinations 2416.4 Glass examinations and comparison standard laboratory practices 2426.4.1 Physical measurements 2436.4.2 Optical measurements 2446.4.3 Chemical measurements: elemental analysis 2476.5 Interpretation of glass evidence examinations and comparisons 2566.5.1 Defining the match criteria 2566.5.2 Descriptive statistics 2566.5.3 Match criteria for refractive index measurements 2576.5.4 Informing power of analytical methods forming the opinion 2606.5.5 Report writing and testimony 2626.6 Case examples 2636.6.1 Case 1: Hit‐and‐run case 2636.6.2 Case 2: Multiple transfer of glass in breaking‐and‐entry case 2646.7 Conclusions 265References 2667 The forensic comparison of soil and geologic microtraces 273Richard E. Bisbing7.1 Soil and geologic microtraces as trace evidence 2737.2 Comparison process 2747.3 Developing expertise 2787.4 Genesis of soil 2797.5 Genesis of geologic microtraces 2847.6 Collecting questioned samples of unknown origin 2877.7 Collecting soil samples of known origin 2887.8 Initial comparisons 2907.9 Color comparison 2907.10 Texture comparison 2937.11 Mineral comparison 2977.12 Modal analysis 3017.13 Automated instrumental modal analysis 3087.14 Ecological constituents 3107.15 Anthropogenic constituents 3127.16 Reporting comparison results 3127.17 Future directions and research 314Acknowledgments 314References 315Further reading 3168 Chemical analysis for the scientific examination of questioned documents 318Gerald M. LaPorte8.1 Static approach 3208.2 Dynamic approach 3248.3 Ink composition 3248.4 Examinations 3288.4.1 Physical examinations 3298.4.2 Optical examinations 3328.4.3 Chemical examinations 3338.4.4 Paper examinations 3398.5 Questioned documents crime scenes and evidential considerations 3428.5.1 How was the questioned document produced? 3428.5.2 What evidence can be used to associate a questioned document with the crime scene and/or victim? 3438.5.3 Are there other forensic examinations that can be performed? 3458.5.4 Demonstrating that a suspect altered a document 3468.6 Interpreting results and rendering conclusions 347References 3509 Chemical methods for the detection of latent fingermarks 354Amanda A. Frick, Patrick Fritz, and Simon W. Lewis9.1 Introduction 3549.2 Sources of latent fingermark residue 3559.2.1 Aqueous components 3569.2.2 Lipid components 3579.2.3 Sources of compositional variation 3599.3 Chemical processing of latent fingermarks 3619.3.1 Amino acid sensitive reagents 3619.3.2 Reagents based on colloidal metals 3709.3.3 Lipid‐sensitive reagents 3779.3.4 Other techniques 3839.4 Experimental considerations for latent fingermark chemistry research 3849.5 Conclusions and future directions 387Acknowledgements 388References 388Further reading 39810 Chemical methods in firearms analysis 400Walter F. Rowe10.1 Introduction 40010.2 Basic firearms examination 40010.2.1 Cleaning bullets and cartridges 40210.2.2 Analysis of bullet lead 40410.2.3 Serial number restoration 40610.3 Shooting incident reconstruction 40810.3.1 Muzzle‐to‐target determinations 41110.3.2 Firearm primers 41610.3.3 Collection of gunshot residue 42510.4 Conclusion 433References 43311 Forensic microscopy 439Christopher S. Palenik11.1 The microscope as a tool 43911.2 Motivation 44011.2.1 Intimidation 44211.2.2 Limitations 44211.3 Scale 44211.3.1 Scale and magnification 44311.3.2 Noting scale 44311.3.3 Analytical volume and limits of detection 44311.4 Finding 44511.4.1 Spatial resolution 44511.4.2 Recovery resolution 44711.4.3 Stereomicroscope 44711.5 Preparing 44811.5.1 Preservation and documentation 44811.5.2 Isolation 45011.5.3 Mounting 45111.6 Looking 45511.6.1 Light microscopy 45611.6.2 Scanning electron microscopy 45711.7 Analyzing 45811.7.1 Polarized light microscopy 45811.7.2 Energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy 46211.7.3 FTIR and Raman spectroscopy 46411.7.4 Other methods 46511.8 Thinking 46511.9 Thanking 467References 46712 Chemometrics 469Ruth Smith12.1 Introduction 46912.2 Chromatograms and spectra as multivariate data 47012.3 Data preprocessing 47012.3.1 Baseline correction 47112.3.2 Smoothing 47312.3.3 Retention‐time alignment 47312.3.4 Normalization and scaling 47512.4 Unsupervised pattern recognition 47712.4.1 Hierarchical cluster analysis 47812.4.2 Principal components analysis 48012.5 Supervised pattern recognition procedures 48512.5.1 k‐Nearest neighbors 48612.5.2 Discriminant analysis 48712.5.3 Soft independent modeling of class analogy 49212.5.4 Model validation 49312.6 Applications of chemometric procedures in forensic science 49412.6.1 Fire debris and explosives 49512.6.2 Controlled substances and counterfeit medicines 49612.6.3 Trace evidence 49712.6.4 Impression evidence 49912.7 Conclusions 499Acknowledgements 500References 500Index 504

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