Electricity Power Generation

Digamber M. Tagare is founder and Managing Director of Madhav Capacitors Pvt. Ltd. He is responsible for bringing capacitor manufacturing technology to India, and was awarded with the title of "Father of Capacitor Industries in India" from Indian Electrical and Electronics Manufacturers Association (IEEMA) in 2002. Mr. Tagare has published more than 100 technical papers and four books on capacitors and reactive power management. He is a member of both the National Association of Corrosion Engineers and the Electrical Research Association, as well as a Senior Life Member of the IEEE.

• Foreword xxiPreface xxv1. Electricity History—A Review of the Road Ahead 11.1 History of Growth of the Electricity Business 11.2 Innovative Technology Developments and Growth of Conglomerates 21.3 Economic Growth—GDP and Electricity Consumption 31.4 Monopolies Develop Built-In Defects 41.5 Breakup of Bell Systems Leads to Unbundling 51.6 Importance of Renewable Energy Recognized—Wind Energy Becomes a Challenger 71.7 Structural Changes 81.8 Cost Breakdown in the Old Model 101.9 Step-by-Step Restructuring 111.10 The New Decision Authorities 121.11 Open Power Marketing Now Rerestructuring Electricity Power System 13References 132. Risks, Operation, and Maintenance of Hydroelectric Generators 152.1 The Present Scenario 152.2 Types and Sizes of Hydroelectricity Projects 152.3 Advantages of Hydroelectricity 182.4 Slow progress of Hydroelectricity Projects 192.5 Factors Propelling the Phased Progress of the Hydroelectric Industry 212.6 Hydro Projects Fall Short of Attracting Private Investment 222.7 Dam Building Progress Over a Century 222.8 Desirable Configuration for Hydro Projects to Attract Private Investment 242.9 Operation of a Hydroelectric Plant 252.10 Unit Allocation within a Large HE Plant 282.11 Speed Control of a Water Turbine 282.12 Startup Process for a WTG 292.13 Speed Controls are Rigid 302.14 Speed Increase Due to Sudden Load Cutoff 302.15 Frequency and Harmonic Behavior After a Sudden Load Rejection 302.16 Effect of Penstock Pressure Pulsations 332.17 AC Excitation of Rotor Field 332.18 Unit Commitment from Hydroelectric Generators, Including Pumped Storage Systems 342.19 ICMMS of Hydroelectric Generating Units 342.20 Controls and Communications in hydro Systems 352.21 General Maintenance 352.22 Limitations of Scheduled and Breakdown Maintenance 362.23 Reactive Maintenance—Key Elements 362.24 Key Components of an ICMMS—Case of a Hydroelectric System 372.25 Intelligent Electrohydraulic Servomechanism 372.26 Online Monitoring and Forecasting 382.27 Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) and Twisting of Rotor Shafts 39References 403. Hydroelectric Generation—Pumped Storage, Minor Hydroelectric, and Oceanic-Based Systems 453.1 Water as an Energy Supplier and an Energy Store 453.2 Pumped Water Storage System for Electricity Generation 463.3 Operation of a Pumped Storage System 463.4 Pumped Storage Systems Have Limited Scope 473.5 Pumped Storage Systems and Wind Energy 483.6 Small Hydroelectric Plants (SHPs) 493.7 Types of SHP Projects—Sizes 493.8 Location-Wise Designations of SHPs 503.9 Components of an SHP 503.10 Typical Layouts of SHPs 513.11 Project Costs of an SHP 543.12 Drawing Electricity from the Ocean 553.13 Underwater Turbine and Column-Mounted Generator 573.14 Wave Energy 58Appendix 3-1 World’s Largest Hydro-Electric Projects 60Appendix 3-2 Remote Control of the Hydroelectric System at Guri 61References 674. Thermal Power Generation—Steam Generators 694.1 Thermal Electricity Generation Has the Largest Share—The Present Scenario 694.2 Planning of Thermal Stations—Risks and Challenges 704.3 Cost Breakdown and Consumption Pattern of Electricity 714.5 Workings of a Coal-Fired Steam Generator Unit 744.6 Types of Boilers 764.7 Classification of Generating Units 784.8 Combined-Cycle Power Plant (CCPP) 79References 835. Thermal Station Power Engineering 875.1 Start-Up Process of a CCPP 875.2 Short-Term Dynamic Response of a CCPP to Frequency Variation 885.3 Cascade Tripping of a CCPP Due to Frequency Excursion 885.4 Operation Planning to Meet Load Demands—Flow Diagram 895.5 Capacity Curves for Thermal Electricity Generation 905.6 Operational Economy Includes Fuel Considerations 925.7 Efficiency in Operating Practices 925.8 Ancillary Services Compulsorily 935.9 Changing Performance Requirements for Thermal Plant Operators 945.10 Expanding Grids Demand Tight Frequency Tolerances 955.11 Reserves are Important in Frequency Control 955.12 Reserves Based on Droop Characteristic 965.13 Primary Frequency Control 965.14 Secondary Frequency Control (SFC) 985.15 Tertiary Frequency Control 1005.16 Rigid Frequency Controls are Bringing in Changes 1005.17 Voltage Control Services 1005.18 Voltage Measurement at POD into the Transmission System 1015.19 Attractive Market Prices Lead to Reserves Over and Above the Compulsory Limits 1015.20 Importance of Operating Frequency Limits for a Thermal Generator 1015.21 System Protection 1035.22 Maintenance Practices 1045.23 Challenges in Meeting Environmental Obligations 1055.24 MHD Generators 105Appendix 5-1 Energy Efficiency Program [36] 106Appendix 5-2 Capability Curves of a 210 MW Generator 106Appendix 5-3 Design of an MHD Generator System and its Output Conversion 107References 1116. Environmental Constraints in Thermal Power Generation— Acid Rain 1156.1 Introduction to Acid Rain and Carbon Emissions 1156.2 World Concern Over Environmental Pollution and Agreements to Control It 1166.3 U.S. Clean Air Act and Amendments 1166.4 Complying with Constraints on the SO2 Emission Rate 1176.5 Surcharges on Emissions 1206.6 Complying with Constraints on Denitrifying 1226.7 Continuous-Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS) 1266.8 The European Systems: Helsinki Protocol on SO2 and Sofia Protocol on Nox 1266.9 The Japanese Example—City-Wise and Comprehensive 1276.10 A Plant Running Out of Emission Allowances 1286.11 Nox Permits Are Projected as Important Players in Price Fixing of Power in a Free Market 1286.12 Air Pollution by Carbon Dioxide—CO2 129Appendix 6-1 Ambient Air Quality Standards for Residential Areas 129Appendix 6-2 Ambient Air Quality Standards for Industrial Areas 130Appendix 6-3 Details on Desulphurization Plants in the United States 131References 1327. Environmental Constraints in Thermal Power Generation—Carbon and the Kyoto Proposals 1357.1 Continuing Growth of CO2 in the Air 1357.2 CO2 from Different Fuels 1357.3 CO2 Emission by Fuel Type 1367.4 Coal has the Highest Rate of Growth Among Energy Suppliers 1367.5 Earth’s Oceans and Seas Absorb CO2 1377.6 Developments on the Front of Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1387.7 Kyoto Proposals 1387.8 Clause 1 of Kyoto Protocol of 1998 1397.9 Original Kyoto Proposals 1397.10 Proposals for Parties to the 2007 Protocol 1407.11 Project Report Needs 1427.12 An Illustrative Validation Report 1437.13 A Workout for Emission Factors and Emissions for a Hydro and for a Wind Energy Installation 1447.14 Open Skies Divided in Tons of CO2 Per Nation 1457.15 An example of Baseline and Emission Reductions 1457.16 Methodological Tools to Calculate the Baseline and Emission Factor 1477.17 Tool to Calculate the Emission Factor for an Electricity System 1477.18 Simple Operating Margins 1477.19 Incentives for Emission Reduction 148Appendix 7-1 Default Efficiency Factors for Power Plants 151References 1518. Nuclear Power Generation 1538.1 Nuclear Power Generation Process in Brief 1538.2 Rise, Fall, and Renaissance of Nuclear Power Plants 1548.3 Power Uprates 1558.4 Advantages of Nuclear Plants 1568.5 Some Types of Nuclear Power Reactors 1568.6 Other Types from Different Countries 1578.7 Planning of NP Plants 1578.8 Financial Risks in Planning 1588.9 Operation of NP Plants 1588.10 Safety Measures to Prevent Explosion in a Reactor Vessel 1608.11 Prevention of Accidents 1608.12 Class IE Equipment and Distribution Systems—Ungrounded Earthing Systems 1638.13 Environmental Considerations—Radiation Hazard 1648.14 Waste Management 1648.15 Environmental Benefits 1658.16 Challenges for Research 1668.17 Rapid Increase in Population Expected 1668.18 Fast Breeder Reactors 166Appendix 8-1 Nuclear Reactor Accident at Three Mile Island 167Appendix 8-2 Chernobyl Accident 168Appendix 8-3 Worldwide Capacity and Generation of Nuclear Energy 169References 1709. Wind Power Generation 1739.1 Introduction to Wind 1739.2 Operation of Wind Turbine Generators 1759.3 Connection of Wind Energy Plants to the Grid—The Grid Code 1799.4 American Grid Code 1809.5 A Resistive Braking of a WTG 1819.6 Power and PF Control 1829.7 Modeling of a Wind Turbine Generator 1829.8 Economics of Wind Energy 1849.9 Capacity Factor of a WTG 1869.10 Capacity Credit Considerations 1869.11 Capacity Factor for WECs in a Hybrid System 1879.12 Wind Penetration Limit 1879.13 Wind Power Proportion 1879.14 Wind Integration Cost in United States 1889.15 Wind Energy Farms 1889.16 Promoting Growth of Wind Electricity 1889.17 Maintenance of WTG 1909.18 UNFCCC and Wind Energy 190References 19010. Photovoltaic Energy—Solar Cells and Solar Power Systems 19510.1 Photovoltaic Energy—How it Works 19510.2 Advantages of Photovoltaic Energy 19510.3 Disadvantages of PV Energy 19610.4 Solar Thermal Density—Insolation 19610.5 Output of a PV Cell 19710.6 Variation with Ambient Temperature 19710.7 Voltage-Versus-Current Characteristics of a Solar Cell 19810.8 Matching the PV with the Load 19910.9 Old Working Model of an MPPT 20110.10 Maximizing the Output of a Solar Panel 20110.11 Interface with a Power System 20210.12 Power Conditioning Systems 20210.13 Super Capacitors and Storage Batteries 20410.14 NERC Guidelines for Connecting a PV Systm to a Grid 20410.15 Problems of Interfacing PV Systems with the Grid 20510.16 Penetration Percentage by a PV Energy System into a Utility Grid 20610.17 Progress in Application of PV Energy 206References 21311. Direct Conversion into Electricity—Fuel Cells 21711.1 Fuel Cells Bypass Intermediate Steps in the Production of Electrical Energy 21711.2 Working of a Fuel Cell 21711.3 A Reformer for Getting Hydrogen from Methane 21811.4 Fuels for a Fuel Cell 21911.5 Fuel Cells on the Forefront of Development 22011.6 Comparison between Fuel Cells 22111.7 Typical Characteristics of Various Fuel Cells 22111.8 Developments in Fuel Cells 22311.9 Applications of Fuel Cells 22411.10 An SOFC–Gas Turbine System 22511.11 Efficiencies of Various Systems in Thermal Power Generation Technologies 227References 22812. Hybrid Systems 23112.1 Coupling of Energy Sources 23112.2 What Exactly are Hybrids? 23112.3 Stand-Alone Hybrid Power Systems 23212.4 Use of Renewable Sources of Energy in Mexico—San Antonio Aqua Bendita 23412.5 Some Definitions 23512.6 Cost Balance Between PV Cells and Storage Batteries 23612.7 Hybrids Incorporating Fuel Cells 23712.8 Midsea Hybrids 23812.9 Workings of a WTG and Diesel Generator 23812.10 Wind Energy Penetration Limit 24012.11 Wind Power–Fuel Cell Hybrids 24012.12 Interfacing Nonconventional Energy Sources with Utility Systems–Static Power Controllers (SPCs) 24112.13 Protective Controls Between a Utility and a Newcomer 241References 24313. Combined Generation—Cogeneration 24713.1 Definition and Scope 24713.2 Rise of Cogeneration 24813.3 Basic Purpose of Cogeneration 24813.4 Three Types of Cogenerators 24813.5 Advantages Offered by Cogeneration 24913.6 Planning of Cogeneration 25013.7 Economic Objectives for a Cogenerator 25313.8 Operation of Cogenerators 25413.9 Working Together with Cogeneration 25613.10 Islanding of Cogeneration Section 26013.11 Environmental Considerations 26213.12 Cogeneration in Brazil 263Appendix 13-1 A Typical Cogenerating System for a High-Tech, Science-Based Industrial Park in Taiwan 264Appendix 13-2 NERC Directive 266Appendix 13-3 Combined Power Generation and Captive Power 268Appendix 13-4 Cogeneration in Sugar Mills in India 269References 27014. Distributed Generation (DG) and Distributed Resources (DR) 27514.1 Definition and Scope 27514.2 Who are the Players in Distribution Generation? 27614.3 Prominent Features of DRs 27614.4 Types of DGs 27614.5 Push Factors, Stay-Put Costs, and Investment Prospects for Electricitym 27814.6 Investment Options 27814.7 Planning Sites for a DG 28214.8 Operation of DGs in an Electric Power System 28414.9 Islanding of an EPS Section from the Main Body 28914.10 Allowable Penetration Levels by DRs 29114.11 Synchronous Generator as a DG with Excitation Controls 29214.12 How Can a DG Earn Profits? 29314.13 Scope for Gas-Based DGs 29314.14 Diesel Generators 29314.15 Evaluation of Service Rendered by Stand-by DGs 29414.16 Reliability Cost for a DG Set 29414.17 Maintenance and Protection of Diesel Generators 29514.18 UK Policy on Generation of Low-Carbon Electricity 296References 29715. Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems 30115.1 Scope 30115.2 Definitions per IEEE Std 1547-2003 30215.3 DR Ceases to Energize the Area EPS 30215.4 Protective Devices 30215.5 Schematic of an Interconnection Between a DR and an Area EPS 30215.6 Restraints on a DR Operator 30215.7 Responsibilities and Liabilities of EPS Area Operators 30315.8 Power Quality Windows 30415.9 Limitation of DC Injection 30615.10 Islanding of a Local-Area EPS that Includes a DR 30615.11 Reconnection 30815.12 Safety Aspects 30915.13 Testing of Interconnecting Equipment 30915.14 Interconnections Will be Important in Tomorrow’s Scenario 309Appendix 15-1 CBIP Standard Recommendation, Extracts from Publication 2517, July 1996 [4] 310References 31116. Energy Storage—Power Storage Super Capacitors 31516.1 Energy Storage and the Future for Renewable Energy Sources 31516.2 Advantages of Energy Storage 31516.3 Factors for Choosing Type and Rating of a Storage System 31616.4 Nature of Support by Electricity Storage Systems 31716.5 Load Density, Short-Circuit Capacity, and Storage of Energy 31816.6 Photovoltaic Energy—PV Energy in Residential Applications 31816.7 Maximum PV Penetration and Maximum Allowable Storage go Hand in Hand 31916.8 Planning the Size of a Store for PV Inclusion in a Distribution System 31916.9 Types of Storage Devices for PV Systems 32116.10 Wind Energy 32216.11 Storage Technologies 32316.12 Determining the Size Storage for Wind Power 32316.13 Control Modes for Stores and WTG 32316.14 Energy Rating of Stores 32816.15 Categories of Energy Storages 329Appendix 16-1 A Supercapacitor 330References 33417. Hydrogen Era 33717.1 Fossil-Based Fuels 33717.2 Hydrogen Properties 33717.3 Hydrogen Advantages 33817.4 Production of Hydrogen 34017.5 Potential Market Segments for Hydrogen 34217.6 Present Roadblocks to use of Hydrogen 34217.7 Governments Envision a Hydrogen Era 34317.8 An Example to Consider 343Appendix 17-1 Proceedings of the National Hydrogen Energy Road Map, Workshop Arranged by U.S. DOE 343Appendix 17-2 HTGR Knowledge Base 347References 34718. Basic Structure of Power Marketing 35118.1 Reconstruction of the Electricity Business 35118.2 Unbundling of Old Monopoly 35218.3 Open Access to Critical Facilities 35218.4 How Does the New System Work? 35318.5 Market Participants and Their Functions 35318.6 New Key Personnel 35418.7 Role of a Regulator or Regulatory Commission 35518.8 Tools for the System Operator 35518.9 Secondary Markets 36518.10 Free Market Objectives 35618.11 Success of the Free Market 35718.12 How Do Electricity Markets Operate? 35818.13 Flow of Operating Funds 35818.14 Effect of Reconstruction on Electricity Business—Capital Investment Prospects 35818.15 National Grid Transmission System 361Appendix 18-1 A Vast Array of Tools to Support Tomorrow’s Market Participants 361References 36319. Looking into the Future 365Index 367