Characterization of Condensed Matter

Yujun Song, PhD, is Professor in Physics at University of Science and Technology Beijing, China, and Deputy Director of Center for Modern Physics Technology. He has previously studied and worked in both the United States and Canada. In addition to his extensive research into subjects such as surface and interface-controlled fabrication of functional materials for information technology, new energy and catalysis, and biomedicine, he is the long-time instructor of graduate and undergraduate courses on the characterization of condensed matter. Qingwei Liao, PhD, is Associate Professor at Beijing Information Science & Technology University, China. She has previously held a visiting faculty position at Harvard University and has published extensively on nanomaterials, applied physics, and related subjects. She serves as the main lecturer of courses like modern analytical testing methods for graduate students.

• Part I Fundamental of Universe, Matter, Condensed Matter and Materials 11 Universe, Matter, Condensed Matter and Materials 31.1 Features of the Universe and Fundamental Constants 41.2 Structure and Composition of Matter 91.2.1 Classification and Characteristics of Matter (Radiation Coupling and Energy Conservation) 91.2.2 Fundamental Particles 91.2.3 Fundamental Forces 111.3 Fundamental Constants Describing the Universe and Matter 151.4 Experiments to Study Fundamental Particles and Forces 201.5 Introduction to Condensed Matter and Materials 271.5.1 Classification of Condensed Matter 281.5.2 Structures and Compositions of Condensed Matter or Materials 301.5.3 Intrinsic Properties of Condensed Matter and Materials 321.6 Main Research Areas in Condensed Matter Physics 33Questions for Thinking 34References 342 The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory 372.1 A Brief History of Gravitational and Gravitational-Wave Measurements 372.2 Fundamentals of LIGO and Related Facility Development 392.2.1 Detecting Gravitational Waves 412.2.2 Educational Analogy Experiments 442.2.2.1 Herriott Delay Line 452.3 Key Components of the LIGO Facility 472.3.1 Coherent Laser Source and Laser 472.3.2 The Laser Interferometer Detector 472.3.3 Fourier Transform and Signal Processing System 482.4 Application of LIGO 492.4.1 Detection of a Supernova Explosion 492.4.2 Detection of Black Hole Fusion 50Questions for Thinking 51List of Abbreviations 51References 513 Fundamentals of Crystallography: Microstructures and Crystal Phases of Condensed Matter 553.1 The Microstructure of Condensed Matter and Materials 553.1.1 The Microscale 553.1.2 The Hard-Sphere Model 563.1.3 Energy and Packing 573.1.4 Crystals, Quasicrystals and Amorphous Structures 583.2 The Unit Cell 603.2.1 Lattice and Motif 603.2.2 Lattice and Crystal Structure 613.2.3 Unit Cell and Unit Vectors 613.2.4 Unit Cells, Bravais Lattices and Crystal Systems 633.2.5 Unit Cells and Their Parameters 653.3 Crystal Structures (Phases) 653.3.1 Close Packing and Stacking 653.3.2 The Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Lattice and its Parameters 673.3.3 The Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Lattice and its Parameters 693.3.4 The Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Lattice and its Parameters 703.3.5 Point Coordinates and Crystallographic Directions 713.3.6 Crystallographic Families and Symmetry 723.3.7 Coordinate Transformations 723.3.8 Crystallographic Planes and Miller Indices 733.3.9 Linear Density, Planar Density and Crystal Density 743.4 Quasicrystals 773.4.1 A Brief History of Quasicrystals 773.4.2 Phase and Structure Characteristics of Quasicrystals 79Questions for Thinking 79References 80Part II Electromagnetic Spectroscopy 814 Elements of X-Ray Diffraction 834.1 Diffraction of X-Rays 834.1.1 The Kinematical Theory of Diffraction 854.1.2 The Dynamical Diffraction Theory 854.1.3 The Mechanism of the Interaction between X-Rays and the Unit Cell 864.1.4 Scattering of X-Rays and the Structure Factor of the Unit Cell 864.2 Development of X-Ray Diffraction 884.3 Generation of X-Rays 914.3.1 X-Ray Tubes: Cathode Ray Tube Structure 914.3.2 The Interaction of X-Rays with Matter 924.3.2.1 Scattering of X-Rays 924.3.2.2 Absorption of X-Rays by Matter 934.4 Applications 944.4.1 Crystal Phase Analysis 944.4.2 Determination of Inner Stress of Condensed Samples 974.4.2.1 Measurement of Residual Stress in Polycrystalline Materials 984.4.2.2 Measurement of Residual Stress in Single-Crystalline Materials 100Questions for Thinking 101References 1015 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) 1035.1 Theoretical Foundations 1035.2 General Setup of an XRF Spectrometer 1045.3 Types of XRF Analyzers 1075.4 History and Current Status of XRF 1085.5 Applications 1095.6 Appendix 1125.6.1 Analysis of XRF Spectra 1125.6.2 Total Reflection XRF, Proton-Excited XRF and Synchrotron Radiation XRF Spectrometry 113Questions for Thinking 114References 1146 X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy (XES) 1156.1 Principles of XAS and XES 1156.2 Classification of XES 1186.3 History of XES and Common XES Spectrometers 1196.4 Applications 119Questions for Thinking 121References 1217 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) 1237.1 The Physics of XAS 1237.1.1 The Principle of X-Ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure (XANES) Spectroscopy 1237.1.2 The Principle of Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) Spectroscopy 1247.2 Generation of X-Ray Synchrotron Radiation 1257.2.1 The Structure of Synchrotron Radiation Facilities 1267.2.2 Synchrotron Radiation Facilities Around the World 1277.3 Applications of XANES Spectroscopy 1327.4 Applications of EXAFS Spectroscopy 1337.5 Differences Between EXAFS and XANES 133Questions for Thinking 134References 1348 X-Ray Raman Scattering (XRS) 1378.1 Interaction of Light and Matter in XRS 1378.2 A Brief History of XRS Spectrometers 1398.3 Components of an XRS Spectrometer 1418.3.1 X-Ray Scattering Crystal Detector 1418.3.2 High-Resolution Crystal Detector 1428.3.3 A Superlattice Thin-Film Mirror Surface as a Double Multilayer Monochromator 1428.3.4 The Detection of Scattered Photons in XRS 1438.4 Applications of XRS 1438.4.1 Chemistry 1438.4.2 Polymer Science 1438.4.3 Materials Science 1448.4.4 Biology 1458.4.5 Chinese Herbal Medicine 1468.4.6 Gem Research 1468.4.7 Investigation of Cultural Relics 1478.5 Summary and Outlook 147Questions for Thinking 148References 1489 Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 1499.1 General Scope of FTIR Spectroscopy 1499.2 A Brief History of IR Spectrometers 1509.3 Basic Concepts 1509.4 Setup of a Standard FTIR Instrument 1539.5 Advantages of FTIR Spectroscopy 1559.5.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Linearity 1559.5.2 Accuracy 1559.5.3 Data Handling Facility 1559.5.4 Mechanical Simplicity 1559.6 Key Elements of an FTIR Spectrometer 1569.6.1 IR Light Source and Laser 1569.6.2 Michelson Interferometer and Beam Splitter 1569.6.2.1 Michelson Interferometer 1569.6.2.2 Measuring and Processing the Interferogram 1589.6.2.3 Beamsplitter 1609.6.3 Infrared Photodetector 1609.6.4 Fourier Transform and Signal Processing System 1619.7 Spectral Range 1619.7.1 Far Infrared 1619.7.2 Mid Infrared 1619.7.3 Near Infrared 1619.8 Application of FTIR Spectroscopy 1629.8.1 Biological Materials 1629.8.2 Microscopy and Imaging 1629.8.3 Studies at the Nanoscale and Spectroscopy Below the Diffraction Limit 1629.8.4 FTIR Systems as Detectors in Chromatography 1629.8.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis 1639.8.6 Emission Spectroscopy and IR Chemiluminescence 1639.8.7 Kinetics of Chemical Reactions and Spectra of Transient Species 163Questions for Thinking 164References 16410 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Spectroscopy of Elements 16710.1 Principles of EDX Spectroscopy 16710.1.1 Production of Characteristic X-Rays 16710.2 A Brief History of EDX Spectrometer Development 16910.3 Key Components of EDX Spectrometers 17010.3.1 The X-Ray Generator 17010.3.2 The Vacuum System 17010.3.3 The X-Ray Detector 17110.3.3.1 The Semiconductor Detectors 17110.3.3.2 The Direct Detectors 17210.3.3.3 The Indirect Detectors 17210.3.4 The Signal Processing System 17310.4 Applications of EDX Spectroscopy 17310.4.1 Surface Penetration 17310.4.2 Elemental Resolution, Reliability, and Errors 17310.4.3 Characteristics of EDX Energy Spectrometers 174Questions for Thinking 175References 176Part III Characterization Methods Based on the Particle (electron Or Electron Beam, Neutron)–matter Interaction 17711 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 17911.1 Interaction Between the Electron Beam and Matter 18011.1.1 Elastic Scattering 18011.1.2 Inelastic Scattering 18111.2 Signal Detection 18211.2.1 Primary and Secondary Electrons 18311.2.2 Backscattered Electrons and Auger Electrons 18311.2.3 The Relation Between Surface Topography and Secondary Electrons 18411.2.4 The Relation Between Atomic Number z and Backscattered Electrons 18411.3 History of SEM Development 18511.4 Key Components of SEM Devices 18611.4.1 Electron Beam Sources 18611.4.1.1 Thermionic Electron Guns 18611.4.1.2 Field-Emission Electron Guns 18711.4.2 Electronic Detectors 18711.4.3 Signal Processing and Imaging System 18811.5 Application and Expansion of SEM 19011.5.1 Analysis of Powder Particles 19011.5.2 Fracture Analysis 19011.5.3 Observation and Analysis Metallographic Structures 19011.5.4 Dynamic Study of Fracture Processes 191Questions for Thinking 191References 19112 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 19312.1 The Interaction Between Electrons and Atoms 19312.1.1 Transmitted Electrons and Bright-Field Image 19512.2 Brief History of EM and TEM Development 19512.3 Key Components of EM and TEM Instruments 19812.3.1 The Basic Structure of a TEM 19812.3.1.1 Illumination System 19812.3.1.2 Electron Gun 19912.3.1.3 Electromagnetic Lenses 19912.3.1.4 Imaging System 20112.3.1.5 Viewing and Recording System 20212.4 Applications and Extensions of TEM 20212.4.1 Analysis of Microstructure and Morphology 20212.4.2 Element Distribution and Morphology Analysis Using EDX Combined with TEM 20312.4.3 High-Angle Annular Dark-Field (HAADF) STEM 204Questions for Thinking 205References 20613 Spherical-Aberration-Corrected Transmission Electron Microscopy (sac-tem) 20713.1 The Principle of Spherical Aberration Correction 20713.2 History of SAC-TEM and Spherical Aberration Correctors 20713.2.1 The Development of SAC-TEM 20713.2.2 Spherical Aberration Correctors 20813.3 Applications of SAC-TEM or SAC-STEM 21013.3.1 Atomic Structure Characterization 21013.3.2 Surface and Interface Study 21013.3.3 Differentiation of Light Elements 211Questions for Thinking 213References 21314 Environmental Transmission Electron Microscopy (ETEM) 21514.1 Design of Environmental TEM Instruments 21614.1.1 Windowed Cell 21614.1.2 Differential Pumping 21714.2 Applications of ETEM 21914.2.1 In-Situ Observation of Vapor–Liquid–Solid Growth in the Formation of Nanowires 21914.2.2 In-Situ Reduction of Metal Oxides 22014.2.3 Photocatalytic Splitting of Water 22214.2.4 Particle Formation and Migration 22314.2.5 Nucleation and Growth of Nanomaterials in Liquid Solution 224Questions for Thinking 227References 22715 Holography 22915.1 Principles and Foundations 22915.1.1 The Holographic Principle 22915.1.2 Electronic Holography 23115.1.3 Characteristics of Electronic Holography 23315.2 History 23615.3 Applications of Electronic Holography 23815.3.1 The Principle of Observing Electromagnetic Fields with Electronic Holography 23815.3.2 Fine Structures of Domain Walls in Magnetic Films 23915.3.3 Micro-Distribution of Magnetic Fields 24015.3.4 Observing Recorded Magnetization Patterns 24015.3.5 Quantitative Measurement of Magnetic Moments Using Electron Holography 241Questions for Thinking 242References 242Part IV Characterization Methods for Hyperfine Structures Related to the Magnetic Properties of Electrons and Nuclei 24516 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 24716.1 Basic Theory and Principles 24716.1.1 Nuclear Spins and Magnetic Moments 24716.1.2 Relaxation of Nuclear Magnetic Moments 24916.2 Pulsed Fourier-Transform (FT) NMR Spectrometry 25116.2.1 Basic Setup of an NMR Spectrometer 25116.2.2 Basic Operating Principle 25216.2.3 Parameters and Performance of NMR Measurements 25316.3 Acquisition of NMR Signals 25516.3.1 Magnetic Field Gradients 25516.3.2 Pulse Sequences in MRI 257Questions for Thinking 259References 26017 Mössbauer Effect and Mössbauer Spectroscopy 26117.1 Introduction 26117.2 History and Development 26217.3 Principles and Fundamentals 26317.3.1 Mössbauer Effect 26317.3.2 Mössbauer Spectroscopy 26417.4 Analysis of Mössbauer Spectra 26517.4.1 Isomer Shift 26517.4.2 Quadrupole Splitting 26617.4.3 Magnetic Hyperfine Splitting or Nuclear Zeeman Effect 26717.5 Instrumentation and Equipment 26817.5.1 Actuating Device 26817.5.2 γ-Ray Sources 26917.5.3 γ-Ray Detectors 26917.5.4 Amplifier and Pulse-Height Measuring System 27117.5.5 Data Collector, Processor, and Analyzer 27117.6 Applications of the Mössbauer Effect and Mössbauer Spectroscopy 27217.6.1 Features of the Mössbauer Effect and of Mössbauer Spectroscopy 27217.6.2 Specific Applications 273Questions for Thinking 275References 275Part V Surface Analysis Method 27718 Atomic Force Microscopy 27918.1 Detection of Surface Morphology with AFM 27918.2 History of AFM 28118.3 Key Components of an AFM Instrument 28118.3.1 Cantilever and Laser System 28118.3.1.1 Laser 28118.3.1.2 Cantilever 28118.3.2 Piezoelectric Scanner 28218.3.3 Operating Modes 28318.3.3.1 Static or Contact Mode 28318.3.3.2 Dynamic Mode 28318.3.3.3 Tapping Mode 28418.3.3.4 Noncontact Mode 28518.4 Applications and Extensions of AFM 28618.4.1 Surface Topography 28618.4.2 Atomic Force Spectroscopy 28718.4.3 In-situ Observation of Biomolecular Processes 28718.5 Recent Progress of AFM 28818.5.1 Principles and Applications of Scanning Near-Field Ultrasonic Holography Under AFM Platform 28818.5.2 Ultrasonic AFM for the Detection of Subsurface Morphology 28818.5.3 Photoacoustic Microscopy 290Questions for Thinking 291References 29119 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 29319.1 Brief History of XPS Spectroscopy 29319.2 Applications of XPS Spectroscopy 29319.2.1 Surface Sensitivity 29319.2.2 Element Resolution, Reliability, and Error 29419.2.3 Typical Analysis of XPS Spectra 295Questions for Thinking 296References 296Part VI Some Progress and Perspective 29720 New and Recent Experimental Techniques 29920.1 Methods Based on Interactions Between Electromagnetic Waves and Matter 29920.1.1 Confocal Laser Scanning Fluorescence Microscopy 29920.1.2 Two-Photon Microscopy 30120.1.3 Optical-Mode Photoacoustic Microscopy 30220.1.4 Multicolor 3D Fluorescence Microscopy 30320.1.5 Optical Coherence Tomography 30520.1.6 X-Ray Free-Electron Lasers 30720.1.7 Femtosecond Lasers 30820.1.7.1 Applications of Femtosecond Lasers 30920.2 Methods Based on Interactions Between Electrons and Matter 31020.2.1 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy 31020.2.1.1 Main Features of ESEM 31120.2.1.2 Representative Applications of ESEM 31220.2.2 High-Resolution STEM 31320.2.3 Transmission Electron Cryomicroscopy 31420.2.4 Scanning-Probe Microscopy 315Questions for Thinking 316References 316Answers to “Questions for Thinking” 319Index 349