Acid Gas Injection

John J. Carroll, PhD, PEng, is the Director, Geostorage Process Engineering for Gas Liquids Engineering, Ltd. in Calgary, Canada. Dr. Carroll holds bachelor and doctoral degrees in chemical engineering from the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, and is a registered professional engineer in the provinces of Alberta and New Brunswick in Canada. His fist book, Natural Gas Hydrates: A Guide for Engineers, is now in its second edition, and he is the author or co-author of 50 technical publications and about 40 technical presentations. Ying (Alice) Wu is currently the President of Sphere Technology Connection Ltd. (STC) in Calgary, Canada. From 1983 to 1999 she was an Assistant Professor and Researcher at Southwest Petroleum Institute (now Southwest Petroleum University, SWPU) in Sichuan, China. She received her MSc in Petroleum Engineering from the SWPU and her BSc in Petroleum Engineering from Daqing Petroleum University in Heilongjiang, China. Mingqiang Hao, PhD, is a senior engineer of reservoir engineering and the deputy chief engineer of Oilfield Development at the Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration &Development (RIPED), PetroChina. His current main research interests focus on CO2-EOR and horizontal well for low permeability reservoirs. Weiyao Zhu is a Professor of Mechanics at the University of Science &Technology, Beijing, holding the Chair in the Department of Building Environment of Energy Engineering and the Institute of Applied Mechanics. He is also the director of Mechanical disciplines at the University of Science &Technology Beijing. He has served as an editor of some Chinese academic journals, and as an Associate Editor of the Journal of Natural Gas Engineering. He has published twelve books and over 330 research papers and has 17 patents and 26 software copyrights to his credit. He has also been recognized with many professional and academic awards.

• Preface xv1 Acid Gas Injection from Startup to Stability— A Recap of 3 Years of Operation and Troubleshooting 1Loni van der Lee, Jordan Watson, Laura Creanga and James van der Lee1.1 Introduction 21.2 Startup: Ideal vs. Actual 41.3 Pump Diaphragm Failures 61.4 Corrosion 71.5 Acid Gas Sampling 91.6 Acid Gas Simulation 91.7 Acid Gas Compression Modeling 111.8 Summary 162 Acid Gas Disposal—A View from the Trenches 19Kristopher Kruse2.1 Introduction 202.2 Plant Process 212.3 Acid Gas Compressor 232.4 Injection Wells 252.5 Operational Learnings 262.5.1 Cooler Plugging 272.5.2 Wellhead Sealing 282.5.3 Wellhead Valve Stem Weeping 282.5.4 Elastomer Leak at Packer 292.5.5 Startup Issues 302.5.6 Amine Foaming 322.6 Key Design Considerations 322.6.1 Importance of Team 332.7 Summary 343 Pipestone Acid Gas Injection System 35Rinat Yarmukhametov, James R. Maddocks, Tim Oldham and Dan Simons3.1 Acid Gas System Description 363.2 Acid Gas Pipelines 373.2.1 Environmental and Social Impact Assessment of Pipelines 373.2.2 Acid Gas Pipeline Risk Mitigation Steps 373.2.3 Emergency Planning Zones (EPZ) 383.2.4 Acid Gas Pipeline De-Inventory and Filling Procedures 383.3 Pipeline Leak Detection 383.3.1 Operational and Emergency De-Inventory of Acid Gas Pipelines 403.4 Acid Gas Injection Pump Design 433.5 Relief System Design 443.5.1 Thermal Relief in Acid Gas Applications 443.5.2 Process Piping Criteria/Considerations for Determining Thermal Relief Needs 443.5.3 Thermal Relief Mitigation Strategies in Valves 453.5.4 External Body Cavity Thermal Relief System 463.5.5 Additional Thermal Relief Mitigation Strategies 483.6 Relief Valve Selection for AGI Pump Discharge Piping Protection 483.7 AGI Pumps and Injection Well Control 493.8 Process Hazard Analysis and SIL-Rated System Considerations 513.9 Conclusion 53Acknowledgment 534 Acid Gas Injection Case Study for the Iraqi Region of Kurdistan 55Mariana Alvis and Federico Games4.1 Introduction 554.2 Methodology 574.2.1 Container Selection 574.2.2 Containment 594.2.3 Injectivity 614.2.4 Well and System Flow Modeling 624.2.5 Injector Well(s) 634.2.6 Surface Facilities Strategy 644.3 Results 654.4 Acknowledgments 694.5 Nomenclature 70References 705 The Success Story of Acid Gas Injection (AGI) in WCSB: The Past, The Present, The Future 73Mohammad Tavallali, Robyn Swanson, Norbert Alwast, Vadim Milovanov and Ashley Anderson5.1 Introduction 745.2 Geology 765.2.1 Keg River Formation 765.2.2 Pardonet/Baldonnel Formation 795.2.3 Belloy Formation 795.2.4 Halfway Formation 805.2.5 Nisku Formation 805.2.6 Leduc Formation 815.3 Wellbore Design Consideration 815.3.1 Wellbore Damage Mechanisms Encountered During AGI 815.3.2 AGI Wellbore Damage Prevention and Control 825.3.3 Well Construction and Monitoring Considerations 835.4 Screening, Ranking, and Storage Potential Estimation 835.5 AGI Outlook 885.6 Application Evolution 885.6.1 Alberta 895.6.2 Saskatchewan 895.6.3 British Columbia 905.6.4 AGI Comparison Between Canada and USA 905.6.5 CCUS Comparison Between Canada and USA 915.7 Conclusions 91References 936 Hydrates of Carbon Dioxide—A Review of Experimental Data 97Bogdan Ambrożek and Eugene Grynia6.1 Introduction 976.2 Reviewed Literature 986.3 Experimental Techniques 1076.4 Description of the Research Work 1096.5 Experimental Data Comparison and Analysis 1686.6 Conclusions 179References 1847 Comparison of Models to Data for Phase Equilibria and Properties of CO 2 + Contaminant Systems 189Wayne D. Monnery7.1 Introduction 1897.2 Previous Review Work 1907.3 Property and Vapor–Liquid Equilibria Comparison Results 1927.3.1 Density 1927.3.2 Specific Heat Capacity 1947.3.3 Viscosity 1957.3.4 Thermal Conductivity 1977.3.5 Vapor–Liquid Equilibria 1987.4 Property and VLE Prediction Conclusions 1997.5 Implication to Process Design 2017.5.1 Liquid Chemical Absorption Process 2017.5.2 Compression and Pumping 2027.5.3 Heat Exchange 2027.5.4 Pipelines 2027.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 203References 2038 Numerical Investigation and Prediction of Critical Points of CO 2 Binary Mixtures Using GERG- 2008 205Eduardo Luna-Ortiz8.1 Introduction 2058.2 GERG and Critical Loci 2068.3 Key Results, Observations, and Discussion 2078.4 Summary 210References 2119 Alkanolamines—What is Next? 213Jörn Rolker and Joe Lally9.1 Introduction 2139.2 New Amine Components for Acid Gas Treating 2159.3 Operating Experience 2219.4 Conclusion 231References 23110 Anhydrous Triethanolamine as a Solvent for Gases 233A.E. Mather, F.-Y. Jou and K.A.G. Schmidt10.1 Introduction 23310.2 Results and Discussion 23410.3 Conclusions 237Acknowledgment 237References 23711 CCUS via CO 2 Compression with Reciprocating Compressors 241Patrick Campbell11.1 Introduction 24111.2 What is a Reciprocating Compressor? 24211.3 Material Selection 24311.4 Gas Properties 24411.5 Equipment Selection 24711.6 Conclusion 24812 Process and Design Aspects of Diaphragm Pumps 249Rüdiger BullertNomenclature 25012.1 Characteristics of Diaphragm Pumps 25012.2 Co 2 and Acid Gas Injection with Diaphragm Pumps 25212.3 Blow-Down a Critical Process Step 25512.4 Conclusions 258References 25913 Well Construction and Monitoring Considerations for AGI and CCS Wells 261Ryan Bartko, Ben Banack and Henry Bland13.1 Methods and Process 26113.1.1 Pressure Measurement in Dissipation Zones 26213.1.2 Considerations for 2D/3D/VSP Source and Sensor Design 26413.1.3 Induced Seismicity Monitoring 26513.1.4 Sensor Considerations and Magnitude Quantification 26613.2 Conclusion 269Acknowledgment 27014 Downhole Pressure and Temperature Observations at a CO 2 Injector Under Differing Injection Conditions 271Stephen Talman, Alireza Rangriz Shokri, Nathan Deisman and Rick Chalaturnyk14.1 Introduction 27114.2 Observations 27214.3 Summary 276References 27615 Case Study for the Application of CCUS to a Waste-to-Energy Italian Plant 279Stefania Moioli, Giorgia De Guido, Laura A. Pellegrini, Elisabetta Fasola, Davide Alberti and Adriano Carrara15.1 Introduction 28015.2 Co 2 Capture 28115.2.1 Methodology for Process Design 28115.2.2 Selection of the Pilot Plant Characteristics 28315.3 Co 2 Utilization 28615.4 Utilities Consumption and Economic Evaluation 28715.4.1 Estimate of Utilities Consumptions 28715.4.2 Preliminary Economic Analysis 28915.5 Conclusions 289References 29016 Key Results of Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project 293Yoshihiro Sawada, Jiro Tanaka, Daiji Tanase, Takashi Sasaki and Chiyoko Suzuki16.1 Introduction 29316.1.1 Current Efforts of the Japanese Government for CCS 29416.1.2 Key Results of Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project 29616.2 Overview of the Tomakomai Project 29716.3 Key Results of Tomakomai Project 29816.3.1 Co 2 Capture 29816.3.2 Co 2 Injection and Monitoring 30016.4 Public Outreach 30616.5 Experience of Major Earthquake 30816.6 Research, Development, and Demonstration of CO 2 Ship Transportation 31116.6.1 R&D to Establish Technology for Ship Transportation of Liquefied CO 2 at a Scale of 1 Million Tonnes per Year 31216.6.2 Demonstration of CO 2 Ship Transportation by a Ship with 999 Gross Tonnage 31316.7 Conclusion 315Acknowledgment 315References 31517 Some Results of ERTF Carbon Capture Pilot Plant 317Ahmed Aboudheir, Neil Rathva, Lin Li and Walid ElMoudir17.1 Introduction 31817.2 ERTF Pilot Plant Process Description and Configuration 31917.3 Offline and Online Analysis Methods and Measurements 32017.4 Test Campaigns 32117.5 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #107 Capacity Target) 32317.6 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #108 Energy Target) 32717.7 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #109 Energy Target) 33117.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 334Acknowledgment 33518 Evaluation of CO 2 Storage Potential in the Deep Mannville Coals of Alberta: Vertical Well Injection Testing 337Yun Yang, Christopher R. Clarkson and Michael S. Blinderman18.1 Introduction 33818.2 Methodology 33918.2.1 Field Planning 33918.2.2 Numerical Simulation 34018.3 Results and Discussion 34218.3.1 Pre-Pilot Investigation 34218.3.2 Calibration of the Numerical Model Using Field Injection Data 34418.4 Conclusion 345Acknowledgments 346References 34619 Dynamic Miscibility of H 2 S/co 2 with Reservoir Oil in a Middle Eastern Triassic Reservoir 347Liaqat Ali and Ahmad J. Sultan19.1 Introduction 34719.2 Description of Reservoir Simulations 34819.2.1 Acid Gas Composition 35019.3 Results and Discussion 35019.3.1 Injection and Production Performance 35019.3.2 Dynamic Miscibility 35319.3.2.1 Results of Dynamic Miscibility for Lower Rate Case (Case 1) 35619.3.2.2 Results of Dynamic Miscibility for Higher Rate Case (Case 2) 35719.3.2.3 Comparison of Dynamic Miscibility in the Two Cases 35919.4 Conclusions 360References 36120 Quantitative Evaluation of Dynamic Solubility of Acid Gases in Deep Brine Aquifers 363Liaqat Ali, Ahmad J. Sultan, Russell E. Bentley and K. Patel20.1 Introduction 36420.2 Technical Approach and Analysis 36720.3 Description of Reservoir Simulations 36820.4 Results and Discussion 36920.4.1 AGI Into Ellenburger Formation 36920.4.1.1 Dynamic Solubility in Ellenburger Formation 36920.4.1.2 Ellenburger Formation Case E-1 37020.4.1.3 Ellenburger Formation Case E-2 37220.4.1.4 Comparison of the Cases and the Effect of Salinity 37320.4.2 H 2 S/co 2 -EOR in Triassic Reservoir 37520.4.2.1 Dynamic Solubility in Kurra Chine Formation 37620.4.2.2 Kurra Chine Formation Case KC-1 37620.4.2.3 Kurra Chine Formation Case KC-2 38020.4.2.4 Comparison of the Kurra Chine Formation Cases 38220.4.3 AGI Into Cherry Canyon Formation 38420.4.3.1 Dynamic Solubility in Cherry Canyon Formation 38420.4.4 AGI Into Wilcox Formation 38720.4.4.1 Dynamic Solubility in Wilcox Formation 38720.4.5 AGI Into Glen Rose Formation 38920.4.5.1 Dynamic Solubility in Glen Rose Formation 38920.5 Summary and Conclusions 392Acknowledgment 393References 39421 Highlights of the Northeast BC Carbon Capture and Storage Atlas 401John Xie, Natalie L. Sweet and Allison J. Gibbs21.1 Study Workflow and Deliverables 40321.2 Project Outcomes 40421.3 Acknowledgments 408References 40822 A Novel Method for Calculating Average Formation Pressure of Gas-Reservoir-Type Underground Natural Gas Storage 411Yubao Gao, Weiyao Zhu, Hongyang Chu and Ming Yue22.1 Introduction 41222.2 Methodology 41422.2.1 Physical Model 41422.2.2 Mathematical Model 41522.3 Numerical Validation 41822.4 Field Application 42022.4.1 Geological Background 42022.4.2 Model Application 42022.5 Conclusions 42322.6 Acknowledgments 423References 424Appendix A—Dimensionless Variable 42523 Simulation of Multi-Zone Coupling Flow with Phase Change in Fractured Low Permeability Condensate Gas Reservoir 427Wengang Bu, Weiyao Zhu and Debin Kong23.1 Introduction 42723.2 Methodology 42823.2.1 Physical Model 42823.2.2 Governing Equations 42923.2.2.1 Two-Phase Zone 42923.2.2.2 Transition Zone 42923.2.2.3 Single-Phase Gas Zone 43023.2.3 TPG and SS 43023.2.4 Constraint Equations 43123.2.5 State Equations 43123.2.6 Initial and Boundary Conditions 43223.3 Results and Discussion 43223.3.1 Model Validation 43223.3.2 Impact of Condensate 43323.3.3 Impact of Fractures 43523.3.4 TPG Distribution 43523.4 Conclusions 436Acknowledgments 436References 436Index 439