Uneven Roads

Todd Shaw has appointments in both the Department of Political Science and the Department of Political Science at the University of South Carolina, Columbia. He is the College of Arts and Science’s Distinguished Associate Professor of Political Science and African American Studies. From 2017 to 2021, Shaw was the department chair of political science and later the interim associate dean for diversity, equity, and inclusion in the College of Arts & Sciences. He researches and teaches in the areas of African American politics, urban politics, and public policy, as well as citizen activism and social movements.Louis DeSipio is professor of political science and professor of Chicano/Latino studies at the University of California, Irvine (UCI). His research interests include ethnic politics, Latino politics, immigration, naturalization, and U.S. electoral politics. He has designed and collected primary survey data that measure Latino political values, attitudes, and behaviors, and has designed and directed ethnographic research projects that added context and nuance to the survey data. DeSipio’s research has expanded the boundaries of the race and ethnic politics scholarship to inform other subfields, particularly immigration and immigrant settlement policy studies.Dianne Pinderhughes is Rev. Edmund P. Joyce C.S.C. Professor of Africana Studies and Political Science at the University of Notre Dame, where she is professor of political science and of Africana studies. She is author of Race and Ethnicity in Chicago Politics: A Reexamination of Pluralist Theory, and coauthor of Contested Transformation: Race, Gender and Political Leadership in 21st Century America (2016). Pinderhughes’s research addresses inequality, with a focus on racial, ethnic, and gender politics and public policy; explores the creation of American civil society institutions in the twentieth century; and analyzes their influence on the formation of voting rights policy. She served as president of the American Political Science Association from 2007 to 2008 and as president of the International Political Science Association from 2021 to 2023.Lorrie Frasure is the inaugural Ralph J. Bunche Endowed Chair at the University of California–Los Angeles. She is a professor of political science and African American studies at the University of California–Los Angeles. She is the director of the Ralph J. Bunche Center for African American Studies and faculty director of the Center for the Study of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics (CSREP) at UCLA. She is the author of Racial and Ethnic Politics in American Suburbs (Cambridge University Press, 2015), which won two national book awards from the American Political Science Association). Since 2008 she has served as the co-Principal Investigator of the Collaborative Multiracial Post-Election Survey (CMPS). Her research interests include racial/ethnic political behavior, African American politics, women and politics, immigrant political incorporation, and state and local politics.Toni-Michelle C. Travis is professor emerita of policy and government at George Mason University and a former fellow of Oxford University’s Rothermere American Institute. She has taught and conducted research on urban, racial/ethnic, and Virginia politics. She coauthor The Meaning of Difference: American Constructions of Race and Ethnicity, Sex and Gender, Social Class, Sexuality, and Disability (McGraw Hill, 2015). Travis has served as a political analyst on Virginia and national politics.

• PART I: INTRODUCTION1 Introduction: Race as an Uneven RoadDoes Race Matter?Defining Race, Ethnicity, and RacismRacial Classification, Citizenship, and Group StatusThe Uneven Road of Race: Our FrameworkConclusion: The Journey AheadPART II: HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS2 Native Americans: The Road From Majority to Minority, 1500s–1970sNative Communities in North AmericaRising Tensions: Native Americans and the New United States, 1776–1830sU.S. Federal Policy Erodes Indian Rights, 1830sThe Civil War and Its Aftermath: Slaveholding and the Fourteenth AmendmentU.S. Federal Policy: Assimilation versus Culture and Sovereignty, 1870s–1950sTermination of Federal Support of Tribes, 1945–1950sCivil Rights and Self-Determination, 1960s–1970sConclusion: A Continuing Struggle for Equal RightsThe Road after 19723 The African American Political Journey, 1500s–1965Race, Slavery, and the Origins of African Americans, 1500s–1790sThe Early American Republic and Black Political Resistance, 1770s–1865The Antebellum Black Community and Political ResistanceThe Civil War and Its Aftermath, 1860–1877Black Politics in the Jim Crow Era, 1880–1940The Second Reconstruction: Postwar and Civil Rights Movement Era, 1950s–1960sConclusion: The Road to Black Politics up to 1965The Road since 19654 The Road Toward Contemporary Latino Politics, 1500s–1970sThe Road’s Colonial Beginnings, 1493–1850Destruction of Mexican American Politics, Late 1800sThe Rebirth of Mexican American Politics, 1900–1960From Civic Activism to Political EngagementDiffering Paths: Puerto Ricans and Cubans, 1890s–1950sCivil Rights and Ethnic Nationalism in Latino Communities, 1960s–1970sConclusion: Latinos as a Pan-Ethnic GroupThe Road after 19755 Different and Common Asian American Roads, 1800s–1960sThe Racialization of Asian AmericansEuropean Imperialism and Asian EmigrationImmigration and Economics before the Anti-Asian Zenith, up to the 1870sEarly Community Formation among Asian AmericansRace, Region, and the Anti-Asian Era, 1870s–1940sShifts and Declines in the Anti-Asian Era, 1940s–1960sAsian American Political Empowerment in the Civil Rights EraThe Asian American Journey since 1965: The Model Minority and Racial Threat Myth TodayConclusion: The Uneven Roads of Asian American Opportunity6 Whiteness and the Shifting Roads of Immigrant America, 1780s–1960sWho Is White? Racial Considerations at the Time of the FoundingLarge-Scale Immigration and Overcoming Ethnic ExclusionWhite Identity at the Dawn of the Civil Rights EraThe State and White AdvantageConclusion: Legacies of Racial Hierarchy and the Roots of Contemporary PoliticsThe Road after 1965PART III: POLICY AND SOCIAL ISSUES7 Voting Rights in American LifeMinority Groups and Voting RightsThe Civil Rights Movement as a Foundation for Voting ExpansionCivil Rights and Voting Rights Legislation after 1965Redistricting and Minority RepresentationThe Politics behind the 2006 Early Renewal of the Voting Rights ActThe Long-Term Stability of the Voting Rights ActConclusion: The Role of Race in Contemporary Voting Rights8 Group Identity, Ideology, and ActivismWhy Group Identity, Ideology, and Activism MatterRace, Ethnicity, and Public OpinionRace, Ethnicity, and Political Ideology: The Political Impact of RacializationActivist Pathways to EmpowermentThe Legacy of Grassroots and Civil Rights ActivismConclusion: Mobilizing for a Changed Future9 Political Behavior and Representation: Minorities’ Growing VoiceWhy Is the Minority Vote Important?Minority Civic Engagement: Patterns in ParticipationMinority Ideology and Partisanship: Finding a Place in the U.S. Political SystemMinority Electoral Participation: Unrealized Potential to Influence PoliticsRepresentation: Electing a Voice for Minority InterestsConclusion: Have Minorities Overcome Political Exclusion?10 Education and Criminal Justice Policies: Opportunity and AlienationRace, Ethnicity, and Public PolicyPublic Education: Opportunities and DetoursRace, Ethnicity, and Education Policy OutcomesThe Criminal Justice System: Barriers and RoadblocksRace, Ethnicity, and Criminal Justice Policy OutcomesConclusion: Public Policy Destinations11 Immigration Policy: The Road to Settlement and CitizenshipImmigrant Status and NumbersImmigration Policies before 1965The 1965 Immigration and Nationality AmendmentsU.S. Immigrant Incorporation PoliciesImmigration Policy in the Twenty-First Century: Alternative RoadsConclusion: A Turning Point for U.S. Immigration Policy12 Diasporic Politics and Foreign AffairsThe Growing Ease of Transnational ActivityThe Roots of Contemporary Transnational Engagement: Family and Community TiesTransnational Activity: Beyond the Immigrant GenerationConclusion: The Political Value of Transnational Politics13 Beyond Race: Intersections of Race, Gender, Class, and Sexual OrientationThe Still Uneven Roads of Race, Racism, and EthnicityThe Uneven Roads of Identity PoliticsIntersecting Roads: Race, Gender, Class, and Sexual OrientationPossible Responses to Uneven RoadsConclusion: Prospects for the Future