Typical and Atypical Development

Martin Herbert is Honorary Consultant Clinical Psychologist at the Royal and Devon Exeter Health Care Trust and Emeritus Professor of Clinical Psychology at the University of Exeter.

• Preface xiiIntroduction 1From childhood to adolescence 1Parenthood 1Concepts of normality and abnormality 2Age- and stage-related tasks 11Crises of development 12The developmental history 13Part I: Typical Development Where the Journey Begins the Intrauterine Stages and Perinatal PeriodIntroduction 17Chapter 1 The First Steps 19Conception: the beginning of life 19Genetic variation and influence 22The genotype 26The human genome project 26Similarities and differences in individuals and groups 28Progress from conception to birth 30Summary of prenatal events: times after conception 39Unanswered questions 42Chapter 2 The Perinatal Period 44Anticipation of the birth 44Fads and fashions 45The birth: labour and delivery 47The mother and postnatal infant care 51Maternal bonding theory 54Bonding to the unborn baby 56The competent infant 57Parenting 58Siblings 59Environmental influences 60Representational models of the infant 62Part II: Typical Development InfancyIntroduction 63The first relationship 63The development of sociability 65Crying and smiling as ‘social communication’ 65The nature of attachment 67Internal representations and selfhood 71Development of self–other awareness 72Chapter 3 Early Childhood: The Pre-School Stage Infant Growth and Development 75Physical development 75The nervous system 78The brain growth spurt 78The brain and communication 80Growth of the brain 81Biological basis of personality 83Sleeping patterns 85Feeding behaviour 89Chapter 4 Perceptual, Motor and Language Development 90Perceptual development 90Vision and fine motor movement 91Motor development 94The proactive brain 99Speech and language development 100Part III: Typical Development Adaptation and LearningIntroduction 107Adjustment and adaptation 107Cultural influences 109The family environment 110Childcare practices 110Maternal privation and deprivation 111The father’s role 113Divorce 116Adoption 119Surrogate parenting 120Learning theory 120Models of learning 122The adaptive role of fear 127Generalized anxiety 129Chapter 5 Early Childhood: The Pre-School Stage Socialization and Cognitive Development 131Socialization and self-control 131Learning and identification: social and moral awareness 132Social cognition 134Social compliance 135The development of aggressive behaviour 137Sex-role (gender) identity 139Socializing tasks 141Cognitive development 145Play 151Theory of mind 153Chapter 6 Middle and Late Childhood the School-Going Child 156Developing a new individuality 156Rules and values 158Expectations of parents 159Social skills and friendships 160Exchange theory 162Siblings: the longest lasting relationships 163Chapter 7 Adolescence: Leaving Childhood Behind 164The changes of puberty 164The end of childhood 166Adolescent sexuality 171Identity and self-image 173The ending of puberty 176Part IV: Atypical Development the Hazardous RouteIntroduction 177Issues of assessment, definition and measurement 177The journey begins again: prenatal influences 178Genetic influences: inherited abnormalities 179Chromosomal abnormalities 180Genetic accidents 183Patterns of genetic transmission 184Prenatal, antenatal and neonatal screening 187Behavioural genetics 187Neuropsychological causation 188Chapter 8 The Perilous First Journey the Inhospitable Environment 189Maternal stress and inherited abnormalities 189Biological adversity 190Teratogens 191Chapter 9 The Hazardous Perinatal Period the Atypical Route 195The Apgar test 195Survival repertoire 197Birth complications 198Prematurity 199Birth trauma 205Anoxia 206Parental attachment to atypical infants 208Stillbirth and infant death 211Chapter 10 Early Childhood Atypical Physical, Sensory and Motor Development 213Physical disorders and disabilities 213Congenital physical anomalies 218Abnormalities of haemoglobin 219Impairments of vision 219Impairments of hearing 221Motor impairments 222Impairments of speech and language 225Executive functions of the brain 229Neurological damage 230Tics and Tourette’s syndrome 232Head injuries 233Chapter 11 The Pre-School Child Atypical Behaviour 236The authoritative parent 236Socialization 237Assertive/commanding behaviour in young children 239Adverse temperamental attributes 239The ‘difficult’ child 241Oppositional defiant disorder 242Developmental (physical) task problems 244Chapter 12 The School-Going Child Atypical Behaviour 252Educational failure 252Insecurity based problems 253Reactive attachment disorder 254Peer group problems 255Rejection 256Social skills problems 256Selective mutism 257School refusal 257Attention deficit and hyperactivity at school 260Severe (profound) learning disabilities 263Specific learning disabilities 263Dyslexia 265Part V: Atypical Development Mental Health and Mental IllnessIntroduction 269Positive mental health 269Mental illness 270Chapter 13 Adolescence: Unsocial and Antisocial Behaviour 275Prejudice 275Risky sexual activity 278Drug use and abuse 280Antisocial behaviour: conduct disorders 281Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 284Bullying 291Delinquency 291Personality disorder 293Moral development 294Chapter 14 Psychological and Psychiatric Disorders 296Mental health problems 296Anxiety states 299Phobic anxiety 301Panic attacks 305Agoraphobia 306Obsessive–compulsive disorder 308Depression (affective disorder) 309Schizophrenia 315Part VI: Atypical Development Children with Special NeedsIntroduction 321Defining need 321Developmental disability 321The child who is ill 323Child protection 324Chapter 15 Pervasive Developmental DifficultiesEarly to Late Childhood and Adolescence 325Intellectual (learning) disability 325Classification of intellectual impairment 328Pervasive developmental disorders 333The autistic continuum 333Asperger syndrome/disorder 347Anorexia nervosa 348Chapter 16 When a Child is Ill 357Chronic illness 357Implications of acute and chronic illness 361Serious illness (hospitalization) 363Development of the concept of death 363Ethical issues 368Chapter 17 Child Abuse and Maltreatment 371Physical abuse 372Emotional abuse 373Child sexual abuse 373Epilogue 381Appendix I: False and True Beliefs 383Appendix II: Measurement of Intelligence 385References and Bibliography 388Index 411

'Although many have attempted to write a developmentally based book on child and adolescent behavior problems, few have achieved this lofty and elusive goal. Professor Herbert does so, however. He nicely bridges the gap or, some would say, chasm between developmental psychology, educational psychology, and clinical child and adolescent psychology. Throughout this volume, he weaves a rich tapestry of typical (i.e., normal) development and development gone awry. Developmental psychopathology comes alive. His approach is theoretically sophisticated, clinically sensitive, and both engaging and timely. It is, in short, a volume whose time has come.' Thomas H. Ollendick, PhD, University Distinguished Professor, Virginia Tech 'Professor Herbert summarizes very complicated material in a succinct, authoritative and accessible manner. He successfully integrates findings from biology, genetics, developmental and clinical psychology and places them within an appropriate cross-cultural context. This forms the basis for evidence based practice in the 21st century and is an invaluable aide-mémoire to all working with children.' William Yule, PhD, Professor of Applied Child Psychology, University of London Institute of Psychiatry "Martin Herbert provides comprehensive and interesting coverage of a core area of psychology - along with definition and discussion of the less core, more clinical aspects of the subject ... This is an intriguing combination of student textbook and descriptive handbook that will interest undergraduate and postgraduate alike, both in psychology and the more clinical areas of study. I'm sure students will find it a useful resource" Dr Rowan Myron, University of Hull, The Psychologist, August 2003, Vol 16, No.8 "Martin Herbert succeeds in this volume, as he has in many earlier volumes, in presenting complex material and issues in an understandable and authoritative manner. This is no mean feat, and is achieved with an elegant and engaging style ... Throughout the book Herbert skilfully succeeds in addressing issues of clinical and educational psychology and interweaving these with developmental, social and cognitive psychology ... Students and their teachers from a range of programmes will find this book invaluable as a resource: nurse, teacher, psychologist, and other medical professionals will benefit from possessing the book as a source book which provides infomation on a wide range of developmental problems. At a time when there is an increasing interest in, and concern with, the development of children and young people and the ways in which the environment in its widest sense can influence development, this book transcends the traditional distinction between nature and nurture and provides a clinically sensitive and academically authoritative account of normal and atypical development. As stated by Thomas Ollendick on the back cover, 'it is a volume whose time has come'." Ingrid Lunt, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 45, No. 6, September 2004