Traffic Engineering Handbook

INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERS is an international educational and scientific association of over 15,000 professionals, with a diverse network of practitioners providing geographic balance and perspective. DR. BRIAN WOLSHON is the Edward A. and Karen Wax Schmitt Distinguished Professor of Engineering in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Louisiana State University. He has also served research appointments at Sandia National Laboratories and Los Alamos National Laboratory. DR. ANURAG PANDE is an Assistant Professor in the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department at California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo, and has co-authored more than 25 papers that have been published in peer-reviewed transportation journals.

• Preface xvii Acknowledgments xixCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE TRAFFIC ENGINEERING HANDBOOK AND ITS ROLE IN EVOLVING PRACTICE 1Anurag Pande, Ph.D. and Brian Wolshon, Ph.D., P.E., PTOEI. Background 1II. The Vision for This Edition 1III. Organization of the Handbook 2References 7CHAPTER 2: PROBABILITY AND STATISTICAL ANALYSES TECHNIQUES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT  9John McFadden, Ph.D., P.E., PTOE, Seri Park, Ph.D., PTP, and David A. Petrucci, Jr., P.E., PTOEI. Introduction 9A. Background and Definitions Related to Statistics and Probability 9B. Sampling Strategies 10C. Types of Error 10D. Variables 10E. Parametric versus Nonparametric Statistics 10II. Descriptive Statistics 11A. Graphs and Tables  11B. Other Tools 12C. Measures of Central Tendency  13D. Measures of Dispersion 14E. Measures of Position 16F. Measures of Association: Correlation Analysis 17III. Probability 18A. Rules of Probability 18IV. Probability Distributions 21A. Discrete Probability Distributions 21B. Negative Binomial (NB) Distribution 23C. Continuous Probability Distributions  23V. Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing  25A. Estimating 𝜇 When 𝜎 Is Known 25VI. Regression Modeling 27A. Linear Regression 27B. Multiple Linear Regression  28VII. Financial Analysis and Engineering Economics 28VIII. Fundamental Concepts in Engineering Economics 29A. Time Value of Money, Interest, Interest Rate, Equivalence, Cash Flow, and Rate of Return 29B. Benefit/Cost Analysis 33C. Risk Management Principles Applied Using Financial Indicators/Metrics 38D. Application of Engineering Economics in Traffic Engineering via Examples 41IX. Before-and-After Studies 45A. Overview 45B. Data Considerations 46C. Study Types 47D. Summary 48References 49CHAPTER 3: ROAD USERS 51Alison Smiley, Ph.D., CCPE and Robert E. Dewar, Ph.D., CCPEI. Introduction 51II. Basics 51A. Fundamental Road User Characteristics and Limitations 51B. The Driving Task Model 51C. Vision 52D. Attention and Information Processing 53E. Visual Search 54F. Perception–Reaction Time 56G. Driver Expectation  58H. Behavioral Adaptation  59I. Driver Impairments  59III. Types of Road Users  61A. The Design Driver 61B. Older Drivers 61C. Novice Drivers  62D. Truck Drivers 63E. Motorcyclists 64F. Pedestrians 65G. Bicyclists 70IV. PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE  73A. Positive Guidance 73B. Traffic Control Devices  74C. Intersections and Roundabouts 79D. Interchanges 83E. Railroad Grade Crossings 83F. Road Segments 86G. Work Zones 90V. Case Studies  92A. Case Study 3-1: Placement of Guide Signs on Freeways 92B. Design to Slow Drivers in a Transition Zone 92VI. EMERGING TRENDS 94A. Naturalistic Driving Studies as a Basis for Road Design 94B. Context-Sensitive Solutions and the Role of Human Factors 95C. Driver Assistance Systems 95D. Human Factors and Safety Tools  95E. Marijuana Legalization 97VII. Further Information 97Endnote 98References 98CHAPTER 4: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES 109Daniel J. Findley, Ph.D., P.E.I. Introduction  109II. Basic Principles and Guidance Resource  109A. Data Collection Preparation 110B. Data Collection Execution 111C. Pitfalls of Field Data Collection  112D. ITE Manual of Transportation Engineering Studies 112III. Professional Practice: Common Traffic Study Procedures 114A. Volume Studies 114B. Speed Studies 119C. Intersection Studies 123D. Safety Studies 131IV. Emerging Trends 145A. Data Collection 145B. Data Applications 146References 146CHAPTER 5: LEVEL OF SERVICE CONCEPTS IN MULTIMODAL ENVIRONMENTS 149Michael A. Carroll, P.E. and Ema C. Yamamoto, AICPI. Introduction  149II. Basics: Conceptual Foundations of Level of Service 150A. The System Perspective 150B. The User Perspective 151III. Approaches to Level of Service and Performance Measures for Different Modes 151A. Approaches to Auto Level of Service  151B. Approaches to Transit Performance Measures 153C. Approaches to Bicycle Performance Measures 154D. Approaches to Pedestrian Performance Measures 155IV. Multimodal Environments 156A. The Modal Mix  157V. Types of Multimodal Environments 158A. Office and Retail Business Districts  159B. Town Centers 159C. Transit-Oriented Developments 159D. Main Streets  159E. Residential Multimodal Environments 160F. Trail Corridors  160G. Adapting Service Concepts to Multimodal Contexts 160VI. Multimodal Level of Service Analysis  161A. HCM 2010 Urban Streets Multimodal Level of Service Method  161B. Practical Applications  161VII. Challenges to Using MMLOS 165A. When to Use Multimodal Level of Service 165VIII. Case Studies 166A. Case Study 5-1: Ashland, Oregon, Transportation System Plan  166B. Case Study 5-2: Evaluating Traffic Design Using Multimodal LOS  167C. Case Study 5-3: Multimodal Improvements and Economic Impact 170IX. Emerging Trends  172A. Alternatives to LOS Concepts 172B. Simplified MMLOS 173C. Multimodal Enhancements and Economic Impacts  174D. Freight LOS 174References 174CHAPTER 6: FORECASTING TRAVEL DEMAND  177David Kriger, P.Eng., MCIP, RPPI. Introduction and Approach 177A. Introduction 177B. Definitions 177C. Premise/Scope 178D. Use 178E. Organization of Chapter 179II. Basic Principles 179A. Common Applications of Forecasts  179B. Overview of the Forecasting Process 180C. Commercial Vehicle Forecasting 185D. Externally Based Trips 185E. Other Modeling Approaches 186F. Forecasting Transportation Demand Management Impacts 186G. Application of Forecasts to Traffic Impact Analyses 188III. Professional Practice 190A. Regulation 190B. Applications to Transportation Engineering 190C. Effective Practices and Common Pitfalls 192IV. Case Studies  193A. Policy Studies: Exploration of Pricing Schemes 193B. Forecasting for Complete Streets 194C. Applications to TIAs: A Multitiered Approach 195D. Transportation Demand Management 196V. Emerging Trends 197A. Novel and Evolving Practices: New Modeling Approaches 197B. Novel and Evolving Practices: Forecasting Active Transportation 198C. Evidence from Recent Research 199Endnotes 199References 200CHAPTER 7: TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS FOR UNINTERRUPTED FLOW FACILITIES 203H. Gene Hawkins, Jr., Ph.D., P.E.I. Introduction: Characterizing Traffic Flow for Analysis 203II. Basics: Traffic Flow Characteristics for Performance Measurement 204A. Flow or Traffic Volume 205B. Speed 215C. Density  217III. Professional Practice: Measuring Traffic Characteristics  217IV. Traffic Flow Relationships for Uninterrupted Flow 218A. Fundamental Model for Uninterrupted Traffic Flow 218B. Actual Representation of Uninterrupted Traffic Flow 223V. Traffic Shock Waves 224VI. Measuring Traffic Characteristics at Bottlenecks 225VII. Quality of Service on Uninterrupted-Flow Facilities 226VIII. Case Studies 227A. Case Study 7-1: Shock Wave  227B. Case Study 7-2: Quality of Service 229References 232CHAPTER 8: DESIGN AND OPERATIONS OF ROAD SEGMENTS AND INTERCHANGES IN RURAL AREAS 235Reza Omrani, Ph.D., Ali Hadayeghi, P.Eng., Ph.D., and Brian Malone, P.Eng., PTOEI. Basic Principles and Reference Sources 235II. Professional Practice 236A. Introduction 236B. Design Control and Criteria 236C. Design Elements 241D. Road Safety Management Process 254E. Signs, Markings, and Traffic Safety Devices  262F. Lighting  267G. Effective Practices 267H. Challenges for Rural Transportation Planning  272III. Case Studies  273A. Case Study I: Context-Sensitive Design  273B. Case Study II: Safety Effectiveness Evaluation  274C. Case Study III: Road Safety Audit  275IV. Emerging Trends  276A. IHSDM Design Consistency Module 276B. Strategic Highway Research Program  278C. ITS ePrimer  278D. Traffic Incident Management  279E. Green Highway  279References 280CHAPTER 9: PLANNING, DESIGN, AND OPERATIONS OF ROAD SEGMENTS AND INTERCHANGES IN URBAN AREAS 283Mark Doctor, P.E., Patrick Hasson, P.E., Hillary Isebrands, Ph.D., P.E., and John McFadden, Ph.D., P.E., PTOEI. Introduction  283A. Essential Reference Material 284II. Basic Principles 285A. General Definitions 285B. Roadway Segments 286C. Urban Interchange Types and Characteristics  287D. Design Consistency 292E. General Interchange Design Considerations 294III. Professional Practice 298A. Regulation  298B. Safety 299C. Environment 299D. Current and Effective Practices  299E. Modeling and Simulation  303F. Common Pitfalls 305IV. Case Studies  306A. Case Study 9-1: Applying Innovative Interchange Designs, Bloomington, Minnesota  306B. Case Study 9-2: Applying Collector–Distributor Lanes for Operational Improvements, DeKalb County, Georgia 307C. Case Study 9-3: Urban Diamond Interchange, Interstate 57 at Illinois Route 50 in Kankakee, Illinois 308D. Case Study 9-4: Active Traffic Management, Interstate 5, Seattle, Washington 310E. Case Study 9-5: Roundabouts at Interchanges, I-70 and Pecos Street, Denver, Colorado  311F. Case Study 9-6: Simulation Modeling to Evaluate Design Alternatives  313G. Case Study 9-7: Integrated Approach for Express Toll Lane Modeling on I-95 in South Florida 315V. Emerging Trends 318A. Active Transportation and Demand Management 318References 319CHAPTER 10: DESIGN AND CONTROL FOR INTERRUPTED TRAFFIC FLOW THROUGH INTERSECTIONS 321Anurag Pande, Ph.D., and Brian Wolshon, Ph.D., P.E., PTOEI. Basic Principles 321A. Fundamentals of Multimodal Intersections  321II. Professional Practice 325A. Multimodal Intersection Design and Safety  325B. Control of Multimodal Intersections 335C. Developing a Signal Timing Plan 346D. Signal Progression and Coordination  352E. Intersection Capacity and Performance Measurement Concepts 353F. Roundabouts: Operational Considerations 356III. Case Studies  358A. Case Study 10-1: Evaluation of Engineering Countermeasures for Red-Light Running 358B. Case Study 10-2: Roundabout in Scott County, Minnesota 359C. Case Study 10-3: Smart Traffic Signal System, Reston, Virginia 359IV. Emerging Trends  360A. Signalization for Pedestrians and Bicyclists 360B. Unconventional Intersection Designs  361V. Conclusions 363Endnotes 364References 364Further Information 365CHAPTER 11: DESIGN AND OPERATION OF COMPLETE STREETS AND INTERSECTIONS 367Jeffrey R. Riegner, P.E., AICP, PTOEI. Basic Principles 367A. Fundamentals of Complete Streets  367B. Interrupted Traffic Flow on Urban Streets  367C. Selection of Performance Measures 368D. Context Zones 369E. Context-Sensitive Solutions  369F. Design for All Users: Modal Balance or Priority 371II. Professional Practice 371A. Design Controls and Criteria 371B. Complete Streets Design Process  378C. Streetside Design  379D. Intersection Design and Operations 381E. Midblock Crossings  387F. Multiway Boulevards 387G. Modal Priority Streets 387III. Case Studies 388A. US Route 62, Hamburg, New York 388B. West Jefferson Streetscape Project, Ashe County, North Carolina 390C. 300 South, Salt Lake City, Utah 391IV. Emerging Trends 393A. Composite or Prioritized Level of Service Measures 393B. Shared Space 394C. Tactical Urbanism 394References 396Further Information 397CHAPTER 12: ACCESS MANAGEMENT 399Vergil G. Stover, Ph.D., P.E. and Kristine M. Williams, AICPI. Introduction 399II. Basic Principles 400A. Provide a Specialized Roadway (Circulation) System 401B. Intersection Hierarchy 405C. Traffic Signal Spacing and Operation  405D. Preserving Intersection Functional Area 407E. Limiting Conflict Points  409F. Separating Conflict Areas  410G. Removing Turning Vehicles from Through-Traffic Lanes 411III. Benefits of Access Management 415A. Safety 415B. Operations  417C. Economic Effects  420D. Aesthetics 420IV. Professional Practice 421A. Compatibility with Multimodal Objectives 421B. Programs and Guidelines  422C. Policies and Regulations 424D. Common Pitfalls 427E. Public Involvement 428V. Case Studies 429Case Study 12-1: Bridgeport Way—University Place, Washington 430VI. Emerging Trends  432VII. Conclusion 433References 434CHAPTER 13: PARKING 437Mary S. Smith, P.E. and Randall W. Carwile, P.E.I. Introduction . 437II. Basic Principles and Fundamentals 437A. Regulatory Considerations and Design Resources 437B. Types of Parking 439C. Cost of Parking  442D. User Considerations 443E. Wayfinding 444F. Design Vehicle for Parking Facilities 445G. Aren’t Cars Getting Smaller?  447III. Professional Practice 448A. Parking Demand Management  448B. Parking Layout Terminology 450C. Parking Geometrics 452D. On-Street Parking 456E. Off-Street Facilities  461F. Multimodal Considerations 470G. Motorcycle and Bicycle Considerations  470H. Pedestrian Considerations 472I. Walking Distance 473J. Accessibility  473K. Safety 478L. Signs  485IV. Case Studies  487A. Case Study 13-1: Eliminating Gridlock in a Parking Garage 487B. Case Study 13-2: SFpark 489V. Emerging Trends 490A. Alternate Fuel Vehicles  490B. Automated Mechanical Parking Facilities  493C. Mobile Parking Apps  496D. Self-Driving Vehicles 496Endnotes 497References.498CHAPTER 14: TRAFFIC CALMING 501Jeff Gulden, P.E., PTOE and Joe De La Garza, P.E.I. Basic Principles and Reference Sources 501A. Definition 501B. Previous Documents 502II. Professional Practice 503A. Purpose of Traffic Calming  503B. Process of Neighborhood Traffic Calming  504C. Other Uses of Traffic Calming in Cities 508D. Neighborhood Traffic-Calming Program Updates  511III. Toolbox 511A. Nonphysical Measures 512B. Speed Control Measures—Vertical 516C. Speed Control Measures—Horizontal 518D. Volume Control Measures 520E. Signs and Markings 522F. Design 527G. Other Considerations 532IV. Case Studies  537A. Case Study 14-1: College Terrace Neighborhood, Palo Alto, California 537B. Case Study 14-2: Kihapai Street, Kailua, Hawaii 537V. Emerging Trends 538A. Speed Kidney 538B. Low-Stress Bikeway Networks 538C. Bicycle Boulevard  538D. Public Interest 539References 539Further Information 540CHAPTER 15: WORK ZONE MAINTENANCE OF TRAFFIC AND CONSTRUCTION STAGING 541Robert K. Seyfried, PresidentI. Basic Principles 541II. Professional Practice 544A. Transportation Management Plans 544B. Temporary Traffic Control Strategies 547C. Transportation Operations Strategies 558D. Public Information Strategies 559III. Implementing the Transportation Management Plan 561A. Staging of Construction 562B. Geometrics of Temporary Roadways 563C. Traffic Control Devices 571D. Implementation of Traffic Control Plan 575E. Operational Reviews and Revisions to the Traffic Control Plan 575F. Detour Planning and Operations 576G. Contingency Plans 79IV. Other Practice Issues 579A. Speed Management and Enforcement 579B. Training of Personnel 581C. Pedestrian Accommodation 582D. Bicycle Accommodation 585E. Incident Management in Work Zones 86F. Public Communication and Outreach Strategies 587V. Case Studies 588A. Case Study 15-1: ITS Applications 588B. Case Study 15-2: Contracting Strategies for Expedited Construction 590C. Case Study 15-3: Effective Public Communications 591VI. Emerging Trends 592A. Rapid Construction Techniques and Incentives 592B. Contracting Strategies 593C. Innovations in Work Zone Traffic Management 594Endnotes 595References.596CHAPTER 16: TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT FOR PLANNED, UNPLANNED, AND EMERGENCY EVENTS 599Deborah Matherly, AICP, Pamela Murray-Tuite, Ph.D., and Brian Wolshon, Ph.D., P.E., PTOEI. Basic Principles 599II. Professional Practice 601A. Regulation 601B. Key Stakeholder Relationships 604C. Safety and Program Planning for Transportation Incidents and Events 606D. Environment 608III. Current Practice 611A. Planned Special Events  613B. Larger-Scale Emergency Events 614C. Operational Strategies 618D. Effective Practices for Addressing Needs of All Users 621E. Modeling and Simulation  623IV. Common Pitfalls 625V. Case Studies 625A. Case Study 16-1: Planned Long-Notice Emergency Event: Multimodal Regional Evacuation 625B. Case Study 16-2: Planned Special Events: The 2009 Presidential Inaugural 628C. Case Study 16-3: No-Notice Evacuation Modeling Support for Northern Virginia 630VI. Emerging Trends 632A. Novel and Emerging Practices 632B. Evidence from Recent Research 633References 634Index 637

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