Research Methods and Statistics

Janie Wilson received her PhD in Experimental Psychology from the University of South Carolina in 1994. Since that time, she has been teaching and conducting research at Georgia Southern University. In the classroom, Dr. Wilson specializes in teaching and learning in statistics and research methods. Research interests include rapport in teaching based on empirical data on the first day of class, electronic communications, interactions with students in a traditional classroom, syllabus design, and the development and validation of the Professor-Student Rapport Scale. Recent publications include two brief texts with SAGE: An EasyGuide to Research Presentations and An EasyGuide to Research Design and SPSS. Along with her colleague, Shauna Joye, she recently published Research Methods and Statistics: An Integrated Approach with SAGE. Dr. Wilson has contributed numerous chapters to edited books and has co-edited several books related to teaching and learning. She has published extensively on the scholarship of teaching and learning and has offered over 60 conference presentations, including several invited keynote addresses. Dr. Wilson is the Past President of the Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP), Division Two of APA. Dr. Shauna JoyeI earned a B.S. in Biology from Georgia Southern University and a Ph.D. in Psychology from Florida State University. During graduate and post-doctoral training, my research and clinical work focused on early childhood learning, attention disorders, temperament, and autism spectrum disorder, with an emphasis on measurement of these constructs. Currently, I am a faculty member at Georgia Southern University, and I examine clinical interventions to enhance self-control, including empirical research in mindfulness. I also work with combat veterans to determine the impact of therapeutic wilderness experiences on wellness. Finally, I continue to pursue a long-standing commitment to teaching and learning through scholarship in that area. I enjoy working with undergraduate and graduate students who are interested in learning more about the process of research, from study design and analysis to APA-style writing. Outside of teaching at Georgia Southern University, I maintain a private practice where I work as a child and adolescent therapist. My association memberships include the American Psychological Association, Society for Teaching of Psychology, Wilderness Medical Society, and Association for Psychological Science.

• PrefaceAcknowledgmentsAbout the AuthorsSection I- Foundations of Design and AnalysisChapter 1- The Scientific MethodEmpirical DataStep 1: Ask a QuestionChoose a TopicAsk a Simple QuestionStep 2: Read the Published LiteratureLocate ResearchChoose a Specific QuestionStep 3: Create a MethodStep 4: Collect and Analyze DataStep 5: Answer the Research QuestionStep 6: Share Your ResultsResearch in Psychology: APA StyleSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesChapter 2- Ethical ResearchEthical Treatment of ParticipantsAssessing Risk to ParticipantsLiterature ReviewHypothesisThe SampleMethodStatistics and the DataBenefitsRiskAppendicesPersonnelCertification of Ethics TrainingDeceptionTesting of Special PopulationsMedical ProceduresAnimal ResearchInformed ConsentTreating Participants EthicallyEthics After Testing ParticipantsData EntryData AnalysisWriting a Presentation or ManuscriptAuthorship IssuesPresenting and Publishing ResearchWho Is Harmed by Unethical Behavior?Ethical Data-Collection MethodsSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesChapter 3- Research Designs and VariablesCorrelational DesignLongitudinal StudiesCross-Sectional StudiesExperimental DesignIndependent VariableDependent VariableCause and EffectRandom AssignmentExtraneous VariablesInternal ValidityLevels of MeasurementNominal VariableOrdinal VariableInterval VariableRatio VariableWhy Do We Care?Summarizing Variables: Central TendencyModeMedianMeanSummarizing Variables: VariabilityRangeStandard DeviationSPSS: Summarizing VariablesNominal DataOrdinal DataInterval and Ratio DataSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferenceChapter 4- Learning About a Population From a SampleSelecting a SampleRandom SamplingCluster SamplingStratified Random SamplingConvenience SamplingBias in a SampleInferential StatisticsSampling ErrorProbabilityHypothesis TestingSignificancep-values and Effect SizePower and Sample SizeDegrees of FreedomSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsSection II- Categorical Variables and Simple FrequencyChapter 5- One Variable With Frequency DataResearch Design: Categorizing ParticipantsOne-Way Chi Square With Equal Expected FrequenciesSPSS: One-Way Chi Square With Equal Expected FrequenciesEffect Size: Cohen’s wAPA Style for the One-Way Chi Square With Equal Expected FrequenciesPowerOne-Way Chi Square With Unequal Expected FrequenciesSPSS: One-Way Chi Square With Unequal Expected FrequenciesAPA Style for the One-Way Chi Square With Unequal Expected FrequenciesSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesChapter 6- Two Variables With Frequency DataResearch Design: Two Categorical VariablesTwo-Way Chi Square: 2 × 3 DesignPowerSPSS: 2 × 3 Chi SquareEffect Size: Contingency Coefficient and Cramer’s VAPA Style for the 2 × 3 Chi SquareTwo-Way Chi Square: 2 × 2 DesignEffect Size: Phi CoefficientSPSS: 2 × 2 Chi SquareAPA Style for the 2 × 2 Chi SquareSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesSection III- Research Without GroupingChapter 7- Examining RelationshipsPearson’s r: Seeking a RelationshipSPSS: Pearson’s r (Seeking a Relationship)Two-Tailed TestOne-Tailed TestPowerGraphs as Figures: ScatterplotAPA Style for Pearson’s r: Correlational DesignPearson’s r: Seeking Cause and EffectPreviewing Data With a ScatterplotSPSS: Pearson’s r (Seeking Cause and Effect)Effect Size: Coefficient of DeterminationAPA Style for Pearson’s r: Experimental DesignInaccurate Pearson’s rWhen Pearson’s r Falsely Shows No RelationshipOutliers That Weaken Pearson’s rNonlinear RelationshipRestriction of RangeWhen Pearson’s r Falsely Shows a RelationshipRestriction of Range on a Curvilinear RelationshipOutliers That Strengthen Pearson’s rSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesChapter 8- Scale DevelopmentPearson’s r and Reliability of MeasuresTest-Retest ReliabilityAlternate-Forms ReliabilitySplit-Half ReliabilityCronbach’s Alpha and Reliability of MeasuresSPSS: Scoring and Interpreting MeasuresReverse Scoring ItemsCronbach’s Alpha on SPSSScoring a MeasureReliability With Subjective Measures: Interrater ReliabilityPearson’s r and ValidityFace ValidityContent ValidityConvergent Construct ValidityDiscriminant Construct ValidityPredictive ValiditySummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesChapter 9- PredictionPrediction and CorrelationLinear Regression: Prediction Using One PredictorCorrelation FirstLinear RegressionError in PredictionsSPSS: Linear RegressionEffect Size: Cohen’s f 2APA Style for Linear RegressionPowerMultiple Linear Regression: Prediction With Two PredictorsSPSS: Multiple Linear RegressionAPA Style for Multiple Linear RegressionSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesSection IV- Grouped Designs With Independent SamplesChapter 10- One Variable With Two Independent GroupsResearch Design: One IV With Two LevelsSPSS: Independent-Samples t-test With an IVDirectional HypothesisEffect Size: Cohen’s dConfidence IntervalsPowerAPA Style for the Independent-Samples t-test: Experimental DesignGraphs as Figures: Bar GraphOutliersUsing a Quasi-IV to Establish a RelationshipSPSS: Independent-Samples t-test With a Quasi-IVAPA Style for the Independent-Samples t-test: Correlational DesignSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesChapter 11- One Variable With More Than Two Independent GroupsResearch Design: One IV With More Than Two LevelsSPSS: One-Way, Between-Groups ANOVA With an IVEffect Size: Eta SquaredPost Hoc ComparisonsConfidence IntervalsPowerAPA Style for the One-Way, Between-Groups ANOVA: Experimental DesignAnalyzing a Quasi-IV With More Than Two LevelsSPSS: One-Way, Between-Groups ANOVA With a Quasi-IVAPA Style for the One-Way, Between-Groups ANOVA: Correlational DesignSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesSection V- Grouped Designs With Related SamplesChapter 12- One Variable with Two Related GroupsTesting the Same People TwiceProblems With Testing the Same People TwicePractice EffectFatigue EffectHistory EffectMaturationSolving Order Problems by CounterbalancingAvoiding ConfoundsResearch Design: One IV With Two Related GroupsSPSS: Related-Samples t-test (Experimental Design)Confidence IntervalsEffect Size: Cohen’s dAPA Style for the Related-Samples t-test: Experimental DesignPowerResearch Design: One Quasi-IV With Two Related GroupsSPSS: Related-Samples t-test (Correlational Design)APA Style for the Related-Samples t-test: Correlational DesignResearch Design: Testing Different People (Matched Pairs)Matching ParticipantsMatching in a Two-Condition StudyThe Matching ProcessSPSS: Matched-Pairs t-testAPA Style for the Matched-Pairs t-testSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesChapter 13- One Variable With Repeated Measures: More Than Two GroupsResearch Design: One IV With Repeated MeasuresSPSS: One-Way, Repeated-Measures ANOVA (Experimental Design)SphericityEffect Size: Eta SquaredConfidence IntervalsPowerAPA Style for the One-Way, Repeated-Measures ANOVA: Experimental DesignResearch Design: One Quasi-IV With Repeated MeasuresSPSS: One-Way, Repeated-Measures ANOVA (Correlational Design)APA Style for the One-Way, Repeated-Measures ANOVA: Correlational DesignSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesSection VI- Advanced DesignChapter 14- Two Variables With Independent SamplesResearch Design: Two IVs With Independent SamplesSPSS: Two-Way, Between-Groups ANOVA (No Significant Interaction)Effect Size: Eta SquaredPost Hoc for a Main EffectConfidence IntervalsPowerGraphing a Main EffectAPA Style for Two-Way, Between-Groups ANOVA With Main EffectsResearch Design: One IV and One Quasi-IV With Independent GroupsSPSS: Two-Way, Between-Groups ANOVA (Significant Interaction)Examining the InteractionPost Hoc for an InteractionGraphing an InteractionAPA Style for the Two-Way, Between-Groups ANOVA With an InteractionSummaryReview of TermsPractice ItemsReferencesAppendicesAppendix A- Power Analysis TableAppendix B- Graphing in ExcelScatterplotsBar GraphsLine GraphsInteraction GraphsAppendix C- APA-Style Manuscript GuidelinesKey Elements in APA-Style WritingThe BasicsTitle PageAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferencesTables, Figures, and AppendicesCommon Mistakes and Tips for WritingExample Paper With CommentsExample Paper Without CommentsAppendix D- Selected Answers to Practice ItemsAppendix E- Glossary of TermsIndex