Race and Racism in Modern East Asia

Rotem Kowner is Professor of Japanese History and Culture at the University of Haifa, Israel. His research has focused on the social and racial nexus between Japan and the West since the sixteenth century as well as on wartime behavior and attitudes in modern Japan. Walter Demel is Professor of Early Modern History at the Universität der Bundeswehr (University of the Armed Forces) Munich, Germany. He has mainly published on the relations between Europe and East Asia, particularly the perceptions of China and Japan, on the Bavarian and German politics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and on the history of the European nobility.

• List of Illustrations and Tables Conventions Preface 1. Introduction: The Synthesis of Foreign and Indigenous Constructions of Race in Modern East Asia and Its Actual Operation, Rotem Kowner and Walter DemelI. Antecedents: A Detailed Examination of Early Western Racial Constructions of East AsiansII. Interactions: The Fusion of European and Asian Constructions of RaceIII. Nationalism: Interactions between Race and Ethnic Nationalism in East AsiaIV. Gender and Lineage: The Impact of Domestic and Foreign Racial ConstructionsPART I: ANTECEDENTS2. East Asians in the Linnaean Taxonomy: Sources and Implications of a Racial Image, Rotem Kowner and Christina SkottThe Linnaean Revolution and View of HumankindSources of Linnaeus’ Racial Perspective on East AsiansThe Essence of Asia: Swedish Views of ChinaSwedish Reports and Linnaeus’ Revision of His Human TaxonomyLinnaeus’ Legacy and the Unfolding Racial View of East Asians3. Constructing Racial Theories on East Asians as a Transnational “Western” Enterprise, 1750-1850, Walter DemelThe Founding Fathers of Racial Theories: Linnaeus, Buffon, Kant and CamperThe Second Generation: Multiple Directions4. The ‘Races’ of East Asia in Nineteenth-Century European Encyclopaedias, Georg LehnerClassifying the Peoples of AsiaThe Encyclopedias' Main Sources for Remarks on the “Races” of East AsiaChinese, Japanese and Koreans: Descriptions of East Asian peoplesStereotypes of East Asians in General KnowledgeVisual Representations of Race in Works of General KnowledgeConcluding Remarks5. The Racial Image of the Japanese in the Western Press Published in Japan, 1861-1881, Olavi K. FältBackgroundThe Oldest People on EarthThe Shining Japanese RaceWeak and Inferior RacePraising the Endeavors of a Poor RaceConclusionPART II: INTERACTIONS6. The Propagation of Racial Thought in Nineteenth-Century China, Daniel BarthThe Background: Imperial China and the “Other”Stage I (1846-1851): Marques and Wei YuanStage II (1851-1855): Hobson and MuirheadStage III (1855-1872): The Self-Strengthening MovementStage IV (1872-1892): John Fryer and the Chinese Scientific and Industrial MagazineConclusion: Chinese Intellectuals, Social Darwinism and Race7. Learning from the South: Japan's Racial Construction of Southern Chinese, 1895-1941, Huei-Ying KuoThe South Seas as Japan’s Backyard, 1895-1914Japan's Expansion into the Southern Chinese Networks, 1914-1928Chinese Anti-Japanese Nationalism and Japanese Discourses on South Seas Chinese, 1928-1936Southern Chinese as Non-Han Races, 1936-1941Conclusions8. “The Great Question of the World Today”: Britain, the Dominions, East Asian Immigration and the Threat of Race War, 1905-11, Antony BestImmigration and “the Awakening of Asia”The Prophets of Race WarCritics of White SolidarityFinessing the Racial DivideConclusions9. “Uplifting the Weak and Degenerated Races of East Asia”: American and Indigenous Views of Sport and Body in Early Twentieth-Century East Asia, Stefan HübnerSportive Citizenship Training in the PhilippinesChinese Cooperation and Acceptance of American-Style ModernizationJapanese Resistance and its Defeat by American Style ModernizationConclusion10. Racism under Negotiation: The Japanese Race in the Nazi-German Perspective, Gerhard Krebs Early Nazi Views on the Japanese Racial PositionBecoming More AryanThe Problem with the Japanese in the Nazi WorldviewContinuing Mutual MistrustThe End11. Discourses of Race and Racism in Modern Korea, 1890s-1945, Vladimir TikhonovRace and Its UncertaintiesThe Emergence of Race Theories in Modern Korea: One of the Logics of the “Civilized World”“Race” and “Ethnic Nation” in Colonial Korea, 1910-1945Conclusion: Race as a Path to Modernist Self-assertion?12. The United States Arrives: Racialization and Racism in Post-1945 South Korea, Nadia Y. KimContextual Background: America Marches In and Mass MediatesThe American Military, Whiteness, and Imperialist Racial FormationAmerican Mass Media, White Heroes, and Counter-HegemonyBlackness and Imperialist Racial FormationRacism and Invisibility in Korean “America”Concluding Remarks13. A Post-Communist Coexistence in Northeast Asia? Mutual Racial Attitudes among Russians and Indigenous Peoples of Siberia, David LewisDiscrimination against Siberian Peoples as an Outcome of Racial PrejudiceThe Origin and Legacy of Russian Attitudes to AsiansRacial Attitudes among Indigenous Siberian PeoplesThe Communist Model of Racial Modus VivendiThe Impact of Prolonged Racism on Indigenous Siberian PeoplesMarriage as an Anti-Racist Means in a Multi-Racial SocietyPART III: NATIONALISM14. Nationalism and Internationalism: Sino-American Racial Perceptions of the Korean War, Lü XunDescendants of the Mongolian Hordes: American Perceptions of the ChineseThe Ambitious Wolf: Chinese Perceptions of AmericansThe Mirrored Self: A Nation-State in the Making15. Gangtai Patriotic Songs and Racialized Chinese Nationalism, Yinghong ChengGangtai Patriotic Songs: A “Colored” Political Genre of Pop MusicA Tacit Collaboration between the Party-State and Capitalist Cultural Producers in Hong Kong and TaiwanThe Interaction between Gangtai Patriotic Songs and Chinese Popular NationalismAnalysesConcluding Remarks16. Japanese as Both a “Race” and a “Non-Race”: The Politics of Jinshu and Minzoku and the Depoliticization of Japaneseness, Yuko KawaiThe Historical Trajectories of Jinshu and MinzokuBeing a “Race” and a “Non-Race” in Present-day Japan: An Empirical StudyConclusions and Implications17. Ethnic Nationalism in Postwar Japan: Nihonjinron and Its Racial Facets, Rotem Kowner and Harumi BefuPremises of NihonjinronNihonjinron as a Manifestation of Japanese NationalismNihonjinron and Its Concern with Origin, Blood and Racial HierarchyThe Impact of Race-Related Tenets on Everyday LifeFunctions of Ethnic Nationalism in Contemporary JapanConcluding Remarks18. Ethnic Nationalism and Internationalism in the North Korean Worldview, Tatiana GabroussenkoThe Soviet Discourse of the Outside World: Conditional InternationalismThe North Korean Worldview in the “Soviet Era”: Echoing the Soviet ParadigmMono-Ethnicity as a Special Korean Virtue: The Evolution of the North Korean World Vision under the Influence of JucheNorth Korean Propaganda about Foreigners from Inclusive and Alienating PerspectivesConclusionPART IV: GENDER AND LINEAGE19. In the Name of the Master: Race, Nationalism and Masculinity in Chinese Martial Arts Cinema, Kai-man ChangFrom Anti-imperialist Nationalism to Cultural NationalismMasculinities That MatterConclusion20. Sexualized Racism, Gender and Nationalism: The Case of Japan’s Sexual Enslavement of Korean “Comfort Women”, Bang-soon YoonKorean “Comfort Women”: Drawn in as SubstitutesThe Nature of VictimizationColonial Policies and the Mobilization of Korean WomenTreatment of Korean “Comfort Women”Lives under Sexual SlaveryNationalism, Gender and Sexual ViolenceConclusion21. “The Guilt Feeling That You Exist”: War, Racism and Indisch-Japanese Identity Formation, Aya EzawaPower, Discourse, and “Mixed Blood”The Indisch and the Dutch East IndiesThe Indisch Community under Japanese OccupationIndisch-Japanese RelationshipsIndisch-Japanese DescendantsConclusion22. ‘The “Amerasian” Knot: Transpacific Crossings of “GI Babies” from Korea to the United States, W. Taejin Hwang“An Act of Both Humanity and Patriotism”: The Amerasian Immigration Act of 1982“Confucius’ Outcasts”: The Korean Amerasian “Plight”Inter-country Adoption of Korean “GI Babies”Living as a “Mixed-Blood Child” (Honhyeola) in Cold War Korea“Half-American Also is American”: Towards MigrationConclusion and PostscriptPART V: CONCLUSIONS23. The Essence and Mechanisms of Race and Racism in Modern East Asia, Rotem Kowner and Walter DemelThe East Asian Contribution to the Study of Race and RacismEast Asia’s Role within the Rise of Racial Theory and the Resulting HybriditySources and Manifestations of RacismThe Close Links between Racism and NationalismThe Role of Gender and Lineage in Constructions of Race and RacismEast Asia and the Future of Race and RacismContributorsBibliographyIndex