Psychobiology

Chris Chandler is currently a Principal Lecturer in biological psychology at London Metropolitan University. He has taught the biological aspects of psychology at all undergraduate levels and to an extremely diverse range of students, giving him ample experience of how to effectively convey complex information to a wide audience. His research background is in dopamine and addiction, as well as an interest in ADHD.

• Preface xixAcknowledgements xxPart I In the Beginning 1Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychobiology 3Introduction 4What is Psychobiology? 4Reductionism 4History of Neuroscience 6Psychobiology: Essential Collaboration 9Points of View in Psychobiology 9Physiological Psychology 9Psychophysiology 9Psychopharmacology 10Neuropsychology 10Cognitive Neuroscience 10Social/Affective Neuroscience 10Comparative Psychology 10Behavioural Genetics 11Computational Neuroscience 11Ethics: Bioethics and Neuroethics 12Animal Research 13Experiments in the USA 14Beyond the USA and UK 15Professional Bodies: British Psychological Society (BPS) and American Psychological Association (APA) 15Beyond the Ethics of Animal Research: The Validity of Animal Models of Behaviour 16Good Science Versus Junk In – Junk Out 20Summary 20Chapter 2 Genetics and Evolution 23Introduction 24In The Beginning – Evolution 24Darwin’s Revolutionary Theory – The Theory of Evolution 25Evidence: The Case in Support of the Theory of Evolution 25The Organism and the Environment 26The Evolution of Humans 27Evolutionary Psychology 29From Evolution to Genetics 29Mendelian Genetics 35Mendelian Genetics and Eye Colour 36Mendelian Inheritance: Huntington’s Disease – Dominant Allele in Action 37Mendelian Inheritance: PKU – A Recessive Allele in Action 39Chromosomes and Inheritance 39DNA 42What is DNA? 43What is the Function of DNA? 44Genetic Variation 47Variable Number Tandem Repeats 47Epigenetics 50Behavioural Genetics: The Complex Interplay of Psychology and Genetics 50DNA and Psychology 55Beyond Mendelian Inheritance: The Endophenotype 56Molecular Biotechnology and Psychology 56The Human Genome Project 57Summary 59Chapter 3 Neural Development 61Introduction 62General Development 62Neural Development over the Lifespan 62Neural Development 64Developmental Changes in the Brain 64Development of The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 71Development of The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 71Male and Female Brains 71Adolescent Development 71Adult Development 75Critical Periods 76Teratology 78Summary 80Chapter 4 The Neuron, The Endocrine System and Communication 83Introduction 84Neurons 84Inside the Cell: Atoms at the Heart of Life 84Neurons: Structure and Function 84Support Cells 89Glial Cells 89Types of Neurons 90Signalling and Communication Within the Neuron 90Electrical Communication 90Signalling and Communication between Neurons: Synaptic Transmission 99Neurotransmitters 101Receptors 102Synaptic and Cellular Regulation 104Retrograde Signalling 107Signalling and Communication between Neurons: Gap Junctions 108Endocrinology: Studying Long-Distance Communication 109Action of Hormones at Their Target 113Regulation 114Summary 114Chapter 5 Neuroanatomy and The Nervous System 117Introduction 118The Nervous Systems 118The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 118The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 120The Central Nervous System (CNS) 126Neuroanatomy 130White and Grey Matter 131Spatial Relationships of the Brain and Spinal Cord 132Brain Regions 132Forebrain: Telencephalon and Diencephalon 132The Limbic System (and Hippocampus) 141The Basal Ganglia 143Midbrain: Mesencephalon 143Hindbrain: Metencephalon and Myelencephalon 143The Ins and Outs of Blood Supply to the Brain 145Arterial Supply of Oxygenated Blood 147The Cerebral Arterial Circle: The Circle of Willis 149Sinuses 149Endocrine System 150The Pituitary Gland 150Summary 150Chapter 6 Psychobiology and Neuroscience Methods 153Introduction 154Physiological Psychology 154Neuropsycho-Pharmacology 157Unilateral and Bilateral Lesions 158Psychophysiology 158The Electroencephalogram 158Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 158Event-related Potentials 159Beyond the Brain 160Brain Imaging 161Nuclear Imaging Using Radioactivity and Radioactive Isotopes 161Magnetic Resonance Imaging 164Optical Imaging of the Brain 166Neuroimaging is not the Ultimate Evidence 166Neuroimaging Maps of the Mind 168Psychophysiology and Neuroimaging Combined 168Virtual Lesions – Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 169Summary 169Chapter 7 Psychopharmacology 173Introduction 174Drug Classification 174Drug Action 177Pharmacokinetics 177Pharmacodynamics 185Types of Drugs 193Stimulants 194Depressants 194Mind-Altering Drugs 196Antidepressants 197Antipsychotics 197Psychopharmacology – The Dark Side 197Clinical Trials 199Summary 201Chapter 8 Animal Learning 203Introduction 204Learning Theory: Adaptations and Associations 205Habituation 205Reflexes 207Classical Conditioning 208Measuring the Conditioned Response 209Acquisition 209Extinction 209Spontaneous Recovery 209Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination 210Is the Conditioned Response Identical to the Unconditioned Response? 210The Relationship between the Conditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Stimulus 211Delay Conditioning 212Simultaneous Conditioning 212Backward Conditioning 213Trace Conditioning 214Temporal Conditioning 214Latent Inhibition 215Blocking 215The Rescorla–Wagner Model 215Applications of Classical Conditioning: From Bench to Bedside 215Operant Conditioning 216The Law of Effect 217Behaviourism 217Acquisition 221Shaping and Conditioning by Successive Approximations 221Extinction 221Spontaneous Recovery 221Discrimination and Generalization 221Interoceptive and Exteroceptive Stimuli 221Applications of Operant Conditioning: From Bench to Bedside 224Cognition in Animals 224Summary 225Chapter 9 Drugs and Behaviour: Behaviour and Drugs 227Introduction 228Schedules as Fundamental Determinants of Drug-Elicited Behaviour 228Tolerance 230Sensitization 233The Placebo 233Conscious Processes 238Unconscious Processes 241Summary 243Part II Psychobiology: Bringing Biology and Behaviour Together 249Chapter 10 Perceptual Systems 251Introduction 252The Sensory Modalities 252Vision and Visual Perception 252The Eye 253The Sclera and Cornea 253Aqueous Humour 255The Iris and Pupil 255The Lens 255Vitreous Humour 255The Retina 255The Optic Nerve 261Lateral Geniculate Nucleus 261The Visual Cortex 263Colour Perception 266Binocular Vision: Two Eyes and Two Hemispheres 270A Summary of Visual Perception 271Hearing and Auditory Perception 272The Ear 273The Auditory Nerve and Cortex 274Smelling and Olfactory Perception 275The Nasal Membrane 275Tasting and the Gustatory System 276The Tongue and Mouth 276The Vestibular System 277Feeling and Somatosensation 279The Skin 279The Transmission of Tactile Stimuli to the Brain 279Nociception and the Perception of Pain 279Why Pain? 281Components of Pain 281Receptors 281Pain Fibres 281Pathways 282Descending Pathways 284Endogenous Analgesia 286Pain Control 286Masochism 290The Hard Question 291Sensory Integration 291Summary 291Chapter 11 Motor Behaviour and Control 293Introduction 294Regions of the Brain 294The Motor Cortex 294The Premotor Cortex 295Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) 297Presupplementary Motor Area (Pre-SMA) 297Cingulate Motor Area 297Broca’s Area 297Frontal Eye Fields 297The Basal Ganglia 298The Cerebellum 301Brainstem 302Descending Pathways 302The Pyramidal System 305The Extrapyramidal System 305Passage of Information to Muscles 305The Skeleton 306The Muscles 306Neurochemical Activation of the Muscles 307Feedback 309Control and Agency 309Summary 309Chapter 12 Executive Functions 315Introduction 316Frontal Lobes, Evolution and the Localization of Humanity 316Lesions And Imaging 317The Frontal Lobes: Damage and the Dysexecutive Syndrome 322Thinking 322Rule Learning, Planning and Problem Solving 323Error Utilization 327Attention 327Theories Describing Frontal Lobe Function 328Theory of Mind: Mind Reading (or Knowing Me, Knowing You (Aha!)) 328Just Say No – The Case of Free Won’t 329Summary 339Chapter 13 Neural Plasticity and Memory 343Introduction 344Memory: What is it and Where is it? 344Amnesia 345The Neural Basis of Memory 353What Happens at the Neural Level? 353The Neural Bases of Learning: Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)and Long-Term Depression (LTD) 353Neuroplasticity 355Summary 356Chapter 14 Sex 359Introduction 360Evolution of Sex and the Sexes 360Differentiation of the Sexes 361Female Genitalia 361Male Genitalia 365Sex Hormones 368Menstrual Cycle and Ovulation 369Sexual Development 373The Male and Female Brain 373What Regions of the Brain are Different in the Sexes? 377What Happens During Sexual Arousal? 380Evolution of Pleasure 386Sexual orientation 386Summary 388Chapter 15 The Neural Regulation of Homeostasis: Feeding and Drinking 391Introduction 392Feeding Behaviour 392Brain Mechanisms for Eating 397Eating Disorders 401Psychological Factors which Influence Eating 405Drinking and Thirst 406Brain Mechanisms in Thirst 406Summary 406Chapter 16 Motivation 409Introduction 410Drug Addiction: The Triumph of Motivation Over Reason 410What is Addiction? 412A Reward Pathway: A Common Denominator in Addiction and Motivation 413Intracranial Self-stimulation 413Drug Self-administration 416Amphetamine, Cocaine and Nicotine 416Natural Reinforcers 419Theories of Addiction – Theories of Motivation 419Positive Reinforcement 421Sensitization 421Physical Dependence Theories and Negative Reinforcement 423Just Say No 427Motivation, Addiction and Learning 429Which Theory is Correct? 430Summary 431Chapter 17 Emotion 435Introduction 436What is Emotion? 436Facial Expression 438Physiological/Psychological Theories of Emotion 443James–Lange Theory of Emotion 443Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion 443Schachter’s Cognitive Labelling Theory of Emotion 446The Emotional Brain 447Papez Circuit 447The Temporal Lobe and Limbic System in Emotion 447The Amygdala 448The Hippocampus and Fear 450Fear or Fear Conditioning 450Beyond Fear 452Conceptual Act Model of Emotion 452Rolls’ Reinforcement Model of Emotion 454The Somatic Marker Hypothesis of Emotion 456Emotion: What’s Love Got To Do With It? 456Love is the Drug 457Aggression and Violence 458Neural Mechanisms and Aggression 458Hormones and Aggression 459Stress 459Emotion and Music: Beyond Emotion as an Evolutionary Adaptation (Or Not) 459Summary 461Chapter 18 Sleep and Consciousness 463Introduction 464Circadian Rhythms 464Sleep 465Sleep Architecture 465The Stages of Sleep 465The Neural Mechanisms of Sleep 468Neurotransmitters and Sleep 468Dreams 469Theories of Sleep 470Why Do We Need to Sleep? 470Sleep Disorders and Mental Health 470Consciousness 472Who are We and What Do We feel? What is It to Think? 472Free Will 474Summary 481Chapter 19 Lateralization and Language 483Introduction 484Lateralization: Neuroanatomy 484Functional Lateralization 486Asymmetry and Sex 489Is Functional Lateralization Fixed? 490Split Brains 490Summary 496Part III The Psychobiology of Psychopathology 499Chapter 20 Developmental Disorders 503Introduction 504Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 504Diagnostic Criteria 504Structural Changes in the Brain 506Functional Neuroimaging of ADHD 506Psychophysiological Studies 506Frontostriatal Circuits 507Pharmacology and Efficacy of Psychostimulants used in treating ADHD 507Psychopharmacology: From Treatment to Theory 509Barkley’s Neuropsychological Account – Behavioural Inhibition 511Working Memory 513Autism Spectrum Disorder 515Diagnostic Criteria 515The Genetics of ASD 515Structural Neuroimaging in the Brain 518Functional Neuroimaging of ASD 518Neurochemistry and Psychopharmacology of ASD 519Theories of ASD 519Summary 520Chapter 21 Schizophren ia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders 523Introduction 524Genetics of Schizophrenia 525Neurochemistry of Schizophrenia 529Typical and Atypical Antipsychotics 532Neurobiological Theories 534Neuropsychological Theories 535Limitations of Many Studies in Schizophrenia 537Summary 537Chapter 22 Aff ective Disorders 541Introduction 542What causes depression? 545Genetics of Depression 545Neurochemistry of Depression 548Noradrenergic Hypothesis of Depression 548Serotonin Hypothesis of Depression 550Treatments for Depression 552Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors 552Atypical Antidepressants 552Selective Noradrenergic Reuptake Inhibitors 552Dual Action Antidepressants 552Electroconvulsive Therapy 553Lithium 553Neuroanatomy of Depression 553Is there a Common Denominator in all the Treatments for Depression? 554Summary 556Chapter 23 Stress and Anxiety 559Introduction 560Stress 560What is Stress? 561The Stress Response 563Input of the Stress Response 564Sympathetic-adrenomedullary axis (SAM) 565Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis 566Homeostasis Versus Allostasis (Acute Versus Chronic Stress) 569Anxiety 571Neurobiology 576GABA and Anxiety 576Barbiturates 576Benzodiazepines 578Noradrenaline 580Serotonin 580A Neuropsychological Theory of Anxiety 581Summary 582Chapter 24 Neurodegeneration 583Introduction 584Subcortical Neurodegeneration: Parkinson’s Disease 584Neuropathology 586Neuropharmacology 586Neuropsychology 589Cortical Neurodegeneration: Alzheimer’s Disease 593Neuropathology 594Neuropharmacology 596Neuropsychology 598Summary 600Chapter 25 Psychobiology: Implications for the Brave New World 603Introduction 604Policy 604Diagnosis 606Treatment 606Education 607Law 608Summary 610Glossary 613Index 633References (Visit the website to download the references - www.wiley.com/college/chandler)