Introduction to Social Psychology

MILES HEWSTONE is Emeritus Professor, University of Oxford. He has (co)authored 3 books, edited 25 books, and has published over 250 articles relating to the study of social psychology. He has been awarded the Presidents' Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychological Knowledge (2001) and the Kurt Lewin Medal for Distinguished Research Achievement (2005). He is a Fellow of the British Academy. WOLFGANG STROEBE has taught social psychology in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands. He is currently Emeritus Professor, Utrecht University and visiting professor at the University of Groningen. He has authored and co-authored multiple books and numerous scientific articles on social and health psychology. He has received several awards, including an honorary doctorate from the University of Louvain (Belgium), the Tajfel Award for lifelong contributions to European Social Science, and the lifetime achievement award of the German Psychological Association.

• Notes on Contributors xviiPreface to Seventh Edition xxGuided Tour xxiiiAccompanying Online Resources for Instructors and Students xxixChapter 1 Introducing Social Psychology 1Wolfgang Stroebe and Miles HewstoneIntroduction 2Some classic studies 2A Definition of Social Psychology 5The core characteristics of social psychology 5The Unique Perspective of Social Psychology 7The study of the individual and the social 7A Brief History of Social Psychology 11The beginning 11The early years 15The years of expansion 17Social Psychology In Europe 20The Two Crises of Social Psychology 22The first crisis of social psychology 22The second crisis of social psychology 25Why crises can be good for a field 28Recent Developments In Social Psychology 29Chapter Summary 32Key Terms 33Note 33Suggestions For Further Reading 33Chapter 2 Research Methods in Social Psychology 35Andrew G. Livingstone and Antony S. R. MansteadIntroduction 36Summary 38Research Strategies 38Experiments and quasi‐experiments 40Survey research 42Qualitative approaches 44Summary 47A Closer Look At Experimentation In SocialPsychology 48Features of the social psychological experiment 48Experimental designs 51Threats to validity in experimental research 56Problems with experimentation 62Summary 64Data Collection Methods 64Observational methods 65Self‐report methods 67Implicit and physiological methods 68‘Big data’: Social media and online behaviour as a source of data 70Choosing a method 70Social neuroscience 71Summary 71Chapter Summary 72Key Terms 73Suggestions For Further Reading 74Chapter 3 Social Perception and Attribution 75Brian ParkinsonIntroduction 76Social Perception 77Summary 81Attribution Theory 81Correspondent inference theory 82Covariation theory 85Access To Covariation Information 87Knowledge, expectation and covariation 89Learning about causation using covariation and causal power 90Attributions and achievement 91Attribution and depression 92Misattribution of arousal 95Attributional biases 99Explaining intentional behaviour 111The naive scientist metaphor 112Attributions as discourse 114Summary 114Social Perception and Social Reality 115Automatic and Controlled Social Perception 116Chapter Summary 117Key Terms 118Suggestions For Further Reading 119Chapter 4 Social Cognition 120Roland Deutsch and Jenny RothIntroduction 121Five Principles of Social Cognition 121First principle: social phenomena can be explained by general cognitive processes 121Second principle: social cognition is situated 132Third principle: motivation shapes social cognition 140Fourth principle: social cognition can be a special adaptation 145Fifth principle: social phenomena are often caused by a mixture of general and more specifically social processes 155Chapter Summary 158Key Terms 160Suggestions For Further Reading 160Chapter 5 The Self 161Carolyn C. MorfIntroduction 162Where Self‐Knowledge Comes From 163Through our own observation: personal sources 164Through the help of others: social sources 166Experiencing a coherent self: autobiographical memories and the self as narrative 170Summary 171The Organizational Function of The Self: The Self As Mental Representation 172The nature of the self‐concept 172Actual, ideal and possible selves 175Implicit and explicit self‐knowledge 176The nature of self‐esteem 176The neural underpinnings of self‐knowledge 185Summary 186The Motivational Functions of The Self 186Know thyself: the self‐assessment motive 187Bigger, better, faster, stronger: the self‐enhancement motive 187The puzzle of low self‐regard: self‐verification 193Why do we self‐enhance? 197The pros and cons of pursuing self‐esteem 198Summary 201The Regulatory Functions of The Self: The Self In Control 201Self‐awareness theory 202Self‐regulation theory 202The consequences of self-regulation 205Autonomous self‐regulation as a resource 206Summary 207Self Stability and Change 208Chapter Summary 210Key Terms 211Suggestions For Further Reading 212Chapter 6 Attitudes 213Geoffrey Haddock and Gregory R. MaioIntroduction 214What is An Attitude? 214Summary 215The Content of Attitudes 215The cognitive component of attitudes 216The affective component of attitudes 217The behavioural component of attitudes 218How related are the components of attitudes? 220Summary 222The Structure of Attitudes 222Summary 224Why Do We Hold Attitudes? 224Object appraisal 226Utilitarian versus value‐expressive attitudes 227Summary 229Linking Attitude Content, Structure and Function 230Content, structure, function and attitude strength 230Summary 231The Measurement of Attitudes 231Explicit measures of attitudes 232Issues relevant to the explicit measurement of attitudes 233Implicit measures of attitudes 234Are attitude measures reliable and valid? 238Summary 238Do Attitudes Predict Behaviour? 239When do attitudes predict behaviour? 241Do explicit and implicit measures of attitude predict different types of behaviour? 244Models of attitude–behaviour relations 246Summary 251Chapter Summary 251Key Terms 252Suggestions For Further Reading 253Chapter 7 Strategies of Attitude and Behaviour Change 254Wolfgang StroebeIntroduction 255Persuasion 255Theories of systematic processing 256A dual‐process theory of persuasion 260The impact of persuasion on implicit measures of attitude 270Incentive‐Induced Attitude Change 272Counter‐attitudinal behaviour and attitude change 273Some paradoxical effects of incentives and sanctions 277Further limitations of the effectiveness of incentive‐induced change 278Summary 279Advertising As Applied Persuasion 279Is subliminal advertising possible? 280Summary 289Chapter Summary 290Key Terms 291Suggestions For Further Reading 291Chapter 8 Social Influence 293Miles Hewstone and Robin MartinIntroduction 294Classic Evidence of Social Influence and The Power of Social Norms 295The impact of social norms 295Summary 302Why Does Social Influence Occur? 302Social comparison 304Summary 305Types of Social Influence 306Inducing compliance 306The influence of numerical majorities and minorities 308Group decision‐making 325Obedience to authority 334Summary 343Chapter Summary 344Key Terms 345Suggestions For Further Reading 345Chapter 9 Aggression 347Barbara KrahéIntroduction 348Definition and Measurement of Aggressive Behaviour 349Observation of aggressive behaviour 351Obtaining reports of aggressive behaviour 351Summary 354Theories of Aggression 354Biological approaches 354Psychological approaches 357Summary 364Personal and Situational Variables AffectingAggressive Behaviour 365Individual differences in aggressive behaviour 365Situational influences on aggressive behaviour 367Summary 376Aggression As A Social Problem 376Intimate partner violence 377Sexual aggression 380Bullying in school and the workplace 381Intergroup violence 384Summary 388Psychological Prevention and Intervention 388Catharsis 389Punishment 390De‐escalation through eliciting incompatible responses 390Summary 392Chapter Summary 392Key Terms 393Suggestions For Further Reading 394Chapter 10 Prosocial Behaviour 395Mark Levine, Rachel Manning, and Richard PhilpotIntroduction 396Prosocial Behaviour, Helping and Altruism 398Definitions 398The altruism–egoism debate 399Prosocial behaviours 403Summary 404Why People Don’t Help 404A decision‐making model of bystander behaviour 406Summary 412Why People Do Help 412The costs and rewards of helping 412Groups, identity and prosocial behaviour 415Helping outgroups 418Social identity and the bystander effect 419Social identity, emotion and bystander intervention 420Summary 421Issues In Researching Prosocial Behaviour 421Violence and helping 422Gender and helping 425Long‐term, sustained helping behaviours 426Summary 430Evolution, Genes and Helping 431When helping is not self‐interested 433Summary 435The Social Neuroscience of Helping 435Summary 437Helping In The Real World 437Selfish vs. altruistic behaviour in life‐threatening emergencies 438Summary 442Chapter Summary 442Key Terms 443Suggestions For Further Reading 444Chapter 11 Attraction and Close Relationships 445Johan C. Karremans and Catrin FinkenauerIntroduction 446The Importance of Relationships 446Relationships and psychological well‐being 446Relationships and physical well‐being 447The role of social support 448The immediate effects of social exclusion 448The need to belong 451Attachment 451Summary 456Interpersonal Attraction 456The benefits of physical attractiveness 456What is beautiful is good 456The features that determine physical attractiveness 457Contextual influences on physical attractiveness 460Psychological attraction 461Proximity 462Familiarity 463Similarity 463Underestimating the power of the situation 465Summary 465Romantic Relationships 465Love 466Relationship satisfaction and stability 466Thoughts and behaviours that enhance relationship functioning 469Summary 473General Relationship Processes 474Types of relationships 474Disclosure 476Perceived partner responsiveness 479Relationship ending 481Summary 482Chapter Summary 482Key Terms 484Suggestions For Further Reading 484Chapter 12 Group Dynamics 485Bernard A. NijstadIntroduction 486The Phenomenology of Groups 486Defining groups 486Why groups? 487Types of groups, entitativity and group functions 488Consequences of entitativity 490Summary 491Individuals In Groups: Social Facilitation 493Zajonc’s drive theory 493The role of evaluation 494Distraction‐conflict theory 495Individuals In Groups: Group Socialization 497Joining a group and group socialization: becoming a full member 498Being in a group: maintenance and role negotiation 501Leaving a group: divergence and exit 502Summary 506Group Development and Structure: The Group Level of Analysis 506Group development 506On being similar: norms, shared cognition and cohesion 509On being different: status and roles 515Summary 519Groups In Their Environment: The Intergroup Level of Analysis 520The intergroup context and the salience of group membership 520The intergroup context, group perceptions and social influence 523Summary 524Chapter Summary 524Key Terms 525Suggestions For Further Reading 525Chapter 13 Group Performance and Leadership 526Stefan Schulz‐Hardt and Felix C. BrodbeckIntroduction 527Some Core Concepts: Actual Group Performance, Group Potential and Task Type 528Actual and potential group performance 528Basic types of group tasks and their implications for group potential 529Summary 530Process Losses Versus Process Gains In Group Performance 531Types of process losses and process gains 531Summary 540Group Performance Management 540Three basic principles of group performance management 540Summary 549Leadership 550Approaches to the study of leadership 551Leadership in groups: How can leadership help to improve group performance? 559Summary 561Chapter Summary 561Key Terms 562Notes 563Suggestions For Further Reading 563Chapter 14 Prejudice and Intergroup Relations 565Russell Spears and Nicole TauschIntroduction 566Personality Approaches To Prejudice 569The authoritarian personality 570Prejudice and a desire for social dominance 571Authoritarianism and social dominance orientation as ideologies 572Summary 577The Cognitive Approach To Prejudice 577Outgroup homogeneity, stereotyping and prejudice 578Developments and integration 579Summary 581Group Approaches To Prejudice 581Intragroup processes, ingroup bias and prejudice 581Intergroup explanations of prejudice and discrimination 582The social identity explanation of ingroup bias 585More extreme threats to the group 590Integrative intergroup theories 592Can emotions help to explain the variety and intensity of prejudice? 595Summary 599Psychological Interventions To Reduce Prejudice and Improve Intergroup Relations 600The ‘contact hypothesis’ 600Varying levels of categorization 606Other prejudice‐reduction techniques 610The wider implications of prejudice reduction 613Summary 615Chapter Summary 616Key Terms 617Note 617Suggestions For Further Reading 618Chapter 15 Cultural Social Psychology 619Peter B. SmithIntroduction 620Culture and Cultural Differences 621Defining culture 622Nations as cultures 623Measuring culture 623Overcoming methodological challenges 627Summary 630Culture and Cognition 630Summary 636Culture and Self-Construal 636Cross‐cultural variation in self‐enhancement 637Self‐construal as an explanation of cultural differences 640Self‐construal over time 640Summary 642Interpersonal Relations 643Prosocial behaviour with strangers 643Intimate relationships 644Summary 645Group Processes 646Summary 649Intergroup Relations and Prejudice 651Contact and prejudice 654Summary 655Intercultural Relations 655Migration and acculturation 657Summary 663Chapter Summary 663Key Terms 664Suggestions For Further Reading 664Glossary 666References 685Name Index 792Index 823