Properties and Applications of Advanced Materials

Savita Sharma, PhD, and V. Bhasker Raj, PhD, are Assistant Professors in the Department of Physics at Kalindi College, University of Delhi, India. They specialize in condensed matter physics and have extensive experience in materials research and advanced physics education.

• Preface xv1 Semiconductors 1Vinod Prasad, Poonam Silotia, and Varsha1.1 Introduction to Semiconductors 11.1.1 Overview of Semiconductors: Intrinsic and Extrinsic 41.1.2 Band Structure and Energy Gap 61.1.2.1 The Band Structure of Crystalline Solids: A Quantum Mechanical Perspective 61.1.2.2 Formation of Energy Bands and Bandgaps 61.1.2.3 The Role of the Bloch Wavefunction and Quantum Numbers 71.1.3 Types of Carriers: Holes and Electrons 81.2 Mobility and Conductivity 111.2.1 Mobility (𝜇) 111.2.2 Conductivity (𝜎) 111.2.3 Drift and Diffusion of Charge Carriers 121.2.3.1 Drift of Charge Carriers 121.2.3.2 Diffusion of Charge Carriers 131.2.4 Mathematical Relation for Mobility 131.2.4.1 Comparison and Combined Effects 141.2.5 Factors Influencing Mobility and Conductivity 141.3 Density of States 161.3.1 Importance of DOS 161.3.2 Applications of DOS 171.3.3 Concept and Derivation in Three-, Two-, and One-Dimensional Systems 171.3.3.1 Bulk Density of States (Three-Dimensional) 171.3.3.2 Two-Dimensional Systems 191.3.3.3 One-Dimensional Systems 201.3.4 Implications for Electronic Properties 201.4 Electron and Hole Concentration in Doped Semiconductor 211.4.1 Role of Doping in Conductivity Enhancement 231.5 Fermi Concepts 251.5.1 Definition and Significance of Fermi Level 251.5.2 Fermi Energy, Fermi Temperature, and Fermi Wavelength 261.5.3 Fermi Surface and Its Role in Semiconductors 271.6 Electrical Properties 28References 302 Dielectric Materials 33Vikas N. Thakur, SK Cheralaahthan, Savita Sharma, and Atul Thakre2.1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics, Polarization Mechanisms, Dielectric Constant and Loss Tangent, and Applications in Capacitors 332.1.1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics 332.1.2 Polarization Mechanisms 342.1.3 Dielectric Constant and Loss Tangent 362.1.3.1 Dielectric Constant 362.1.3.2 Dielectric Loss Tangent 372.1.4 Applications in Capacitors 372.2 Ferroelectric Materials, Structural Characteristics and Hysteresis Behavior, and Applications in Memory Devices and Sensors 382.2.1 Ferroelectric Materials 382.2.2 Structural Characteristics and Hysteresis Behavior 402.2.2.1 Crystal Symmetry and Phase Transitions 402.2.2.2 Ferroelectric Structure 402.2.2.3 Ferroelectric Domains 412.2.2.4 Hysteresis Behavior 412.2.3 Applications in Memory Devices and Sensors 422.3 Piezoelectric Materials, Principles and Properties of Piezoelectricity, Applications in Micro-positioners, Actuators, and Sonar Devices 432.3.1 Principles and Properties of Piezoelectricity 432.3.1.1 Bimorph or Unimorph Cantilever 462.3.1.2 Unimorph Cantilever 462.3.1.3 Piezoelectric Film Configuration 472.3.1.4 Piezoelectric Stack Configuration 482.3.2 Applications of Piezoelectric Materials 492.3.2.1 Piezoelectric Acoustic Transducer 502.4 Pyroelectric Materials, Mechanisms of Pyroelectricity, Applications in Radiation Detectors, and Thermometry 522.4.1 Mechanisms of Pyroelectricity 522.4.2 Applications of Pyroelectric Materials 54References 553 Magnetic Materials 61Neha Chauhan, Savita Sharma, Jeevitesh K. Rajput, and Ravikant3.1 Magnetic Classification 613.1.1 Hysteresis Loop Characteristics 623.2 Applications of Magnetic Materials 633.2.1 Soft Magnetic Materials in Transformers and Inductors 633.2.2 Hard Magnetic Materials in Permanent Magnets and Storage Devices 663.3 Spintronics 673.3.1 Fundamentals of Spin Transport and Magnetoresistance 673.4 Conclusion 68References 694 Polymers 73Savita Sharma, Ranjit Kumar, and Hitesh Borkar4.1 Overview 734.2 Chemical Structure of Polymers 734.3 Components of Polymer Structure 744.4 Classification of Polymers 754.4.1 Classification Based on Origin 754.4.2 Classification Based on Structural Arrangement 774.4.3 Classification Based on Polymerization Mechanism 774.5 Thermoplastic Versus Thermosetting Polymers 784.5.1 Processing and Manufacturing Techniques 784.5.2 Mechanical Properties and Performance Characteristics 794.5.3 Thermal and Chemical Resistance 804.5.4 Applications in Industry 804.5.4.1 Epoxy Resin as a Thermosetting Polymer 814.5.5 Environmental Impact and Sustainability Considerations 824.6 Properties of Specific Polymers 824.6.1 Polyethylene 824.6.2 Polyvinyl Chloride 834.6.3 Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) 834.6.4 Polymethyl Methacrylate (Acrylic) 844.6.5 Polyester (PET, PBT) 844.6.6 Nylon (Polyamide—PA 6, PA 66) 854.7 Conducting Polymers 864.7.1 Electrical Properties of Conducting Polymers 864.7.2 Doping Mechanism in Conducting Polymers 86References 885 Liquid Crystals 95Onkar Mangla5.1 Introduction to Liquid Crystals 955.1.1 Classification: Thermotropic and Lyotropic Liquid Crystals 965.1.1.1 Thermotropic Liquid Crystals 965.1.1.2 Lyotropic Liquid Crystals 985.1.2 Structural and Orientational Ordering 995.1.2.1 Molecular Arrangement of Liquid Crystals 995.1.2.2 Types of Ordering in Liquid Crystals 1005.2 Phases and Phase Transition 1035.2.1 Nematic, Smectic, and Cholesteric Phases 1035.2.1.1 Nematic Phase 1035.2.1.2 Smectic Phase 1045.2.1.3 Cholesteric Phase 1055.2.2 Phase Transitions and Thermal Effects 1065.2.2.1 Transition Between Phases 1065.3 Optical Properties and Applications 1105.3.1 Anisotropy and Birefringence 1115.3.1.1 Anisotropy in Liquid Crystals 1115.3.1.2 Birefringence in Liquid Crystals 1115.3.1.3 Applications of Anisotropy and Birefringence in Liquid Crystals 1125.3.2 Applications in Display Devices and Photonic Systems 1125.3.2.1 Display Devices 1125.3.2.2 Advantages of Liquid Crystals in Display Devices 1135.3.2.3 Photonic Systems 1145.3.2.4 Advantages of Liquid Crystals in Photonic Systems 117References 1176 Carbon-Based Materials 121Aruna Sharma, Asha Kumawat, Anjali Yadav, Aprajita Gaur, Maanya Bhardwaj, and Rajesh Kumar Meena6.1 Introduction 1216.2 Structural Properties of Carbon Allotropes 1226.3 Properties and Synthesis of Fullerenes (C60) 1246.3.1 Buckminster Fullerene (C60) 1246.3.2 Synthesis of Fullerenes 1246.3.3 Synthesis via Laser Vaporization of Carbon 1246.3.4 Synthesis by Electric Arc Heating of Graphite 1256.3.5 Synthesis by Resistive Arc Heating of Graphite 1266.3.6 Synthesis by Laser Irradiation of Polycyclic Hydrocarbons 1266.3.7 By Vaporization of Carbon Source 1266.4 Single-Walled and Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes 1266.4.1 Physico-chemical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 1276.4.2 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 1286.4.2.1 Cancer Cell Identification 1286.4.2.2 In Drug Delivery 1286.4.2.3 Biosensors 1286.4.2.4 Electronics 1286.4.2.5 In Hydrogen Storage 1286.5 Graphene: Structure and Energy Band Diagram 1286.6 Optical Properties of Carbon Materials 1306.7 Applications of Carbon Materials 1306.7.1 Sensors 1326.7.2 Energy Storage 1336.7.3 Lithium Ion Battery 1346.7.4 Fuel Cells 1346.7.5 Other Batteries 1346.7.6 Supercapacitors 1346.7.7 Modified Electrode Material 1356.7.8 Mechanical Reinforcements and Composites 1356.8 Conclusion 136References 1367 Synthesis and Processing of Materials 141Kaushlendra Prasad Singh and Shalini Kumari7.1 Ceramic Materials 1417.1.1 Synthesis of Ceramic Materials 1417.1.2 Calcination and Its Role in Synthesis of Ceramics 1447.1.3 Sintering: Mechanisms and Techniques 1477.1.4 Grain Boundaries and Their Impact on Material Properties 1497.1.4.1 Understanding Grain Boundaries 1497.1.5 Impact on Material Properties 1517.2 Crystals and Their Growth Techniques 1537.2.1 Importance of Single Crystals 1537.2.2 Various Crystal Growth Techniques 1547.2.2.1 Floating Zone and Czochralski Methods 1557.2.3 Floating Zone Method 1557.2.3.1 Zone Refining 1567.2.4 Czochralski Method 1587.3 Polymer Synthesis 1607.3.1 Fundamentals of Polymer Chemistry 1607.3.2 Polymerization Mechanisms: Addition Polymerization 1627.3.3 Polymerization Mechanisms: Condensation Polymerization 1637.4 Conclusions 165References 1668 Synthesis of Thin Films 169Manisha Tyagi and Biplob Barman8.1 Introduction 1698.2 Thin Films Explained 1698.3 Key Properties of Thin Films 1708.4 Where Do Vacuum Systems Fit In 1718.4.1 Importance of Vacuum 1718.4.2 Types of Vacuum Systems 1718.4.3 Key Components of a Vacuum System 1718.5 Thin-Film Deposition Techniques 1728.5.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 1728.5.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 1728.5.3 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) 1738.5.4 Other Deposition Methods 1738.6 Factors Influencing Thin-Film Quality 1738.6.1 Deposition Rate 1738.6.2 Substrate Temperature 1738.6.3 Gas Pressure and Environment 1738.6.4 Material Properties 1748.7 Thin-Film Deposition Methods 1748.7.1 Physical Vapor Deposition Techniques 1748.7.1.1 Evaporation 1758.7.1.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy 1768.7.1.3 Pulsed Laser Deposition 1778.7.1.4 Sputtering 1818.8 Chemical Vapor Deposition Techniques 1858.8.1 Spin Coating 1878.8.2 Hydro-thermal Method 1898.8.3 Sol–Gel Method 1908.8.4 Drop Casting 1938.8.5 Dip Coating 1938.9 Applications of Thin Films 195References 1989 Oxide-Based Materials 203Neha Sharma, Karthikeyan Kaliappan, Pragati Kumar, and Nupur Saxena9.1 Introduction to Oxide Materials 2039.1.1 Overview of Oxide Materials 2039.1.2 Classification of Oxide Materials 2049.1.2.1 Binary Oxides 2049.1.2.2 Ternary Oxides 2059.1.2.3 Quaternary Oxides 2059.1.2.4 Layered and Mixed-Valence Oxides 2069.2 Fabrication of Oxide Thin Films and Its Nanoparticles 2079.3 Structural and Electrical Properties of Different Oxides 2109.3.1 Structural Properties 2119.3.1.1 Crystallinity/Lattice Structure 2119.3.1.2 Grain Size and Density 2129.3.2 Electrical Properties 2139.3.2.1 Resistivity 2149.3.2.2 Carrier Mobility 2159.3.2.3 Bandgap and Conducting Behavior 2159.3.2.4 Dielectric Constant 2159.3.2.5 Defects 2169.4 Optical Properties of the Oxide Material 2189.4.1 Optical Energy Bandgap 2189.4.2 Refractive Index 2189.4.3 Band Edge Energy Absorption 2199.4.4 Photoluminescence 2199.4.5 Thin-Film Thermal Mismatch Stresses 2209.5 Applications of Oxide Materials 2229.6 Conclusion 223References 22410 Optical, Thermal, Mechanical, and Viscoelastic Properties of Conjugated Polymer Nanocomposites 231Afnan K. M. Irfan, Shilpi Khurana, and Amit Kumar10.1 Introduction 23110.1.1 Conjugated Polymers 23110.1.2 Conjugated Polymer–Based Nanocomposite 23210.2 Synthesis of Conjugated Polymer Nanocomposites 23310.2.1 In situ and Ex situ Method 23310.2.2 Solution Processing 23310.2.3 Melt Blending 23410.3 Properties of Conjugated Polymer Nanocomposites 23510.3.1 Optical Properties 23510.3.1.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy 23610.3.1.2 Raman Spectra 23710.3.1.3 Ultraviolet–Vis Absorption Spectra 23810.3.1.4 Steady-State Photoluminescence 23810.3.1.5 Applications 23910.3.1.6 Thermo-Mechanical Behavior of Graphene-Enhanced Conjugated-Polymer Nanocomposites 24010.3.1.7 Mechanical Properties 24110.3.1.8 Thermal Properties 24510.3.2 Viscoelastic Properties 24910.3.2.1 Small-Amplitude Oscillatory Shear 25210.3.2.2 Applications 25410.4 Challenges 25410.5 Summary 255Acknowledgement 255References 255Index 263