Princeton Guide to Historical Research

Zachary M. Schrag is professor of history at George Mason University and the author of Ethical Imperialism and The Great Society Subway. His teaching website is historyprofessor.org. He lives in Arlington, Virginia. Twitter @zacharyschrag

• Introduction: History Is for EveryonePART I DEFINITIONSCHAPTER 1 Defining HistoryHistory Is the Study of People and the Choices They MadeHistory Is a Means to Understand Today’s WorldHistory Combines Storytelling and AnalysisHistory Is an Ongoing DebateCHAPTER 2 Historians’ EthicsCuriosityAccuracyJudgmentEmpathyGratitudeTruthPART II QUESTIONSCHAPTER 3 Asking QuestionsWonderAutobiographyEverything Has a HistoryNarrative ExpansionFrom the SourcePublic HistoryResearch AgendaQuestionsFactual QuestionsInterpretive QuestionsDialecticsOpposing ForcesInternal ContradictionsCompeting PrioritiesDetermining FactorsHidden or Contested MeaningsBefore and AfterDialectics Create Questions, Not AnswersCHAPTER 4 Research DesignScopeCopy Other WorksHistory Big and SmallPick Your PeopleAdd and SubtractNarrative versus Thematic SchemesPeriodizationBeginningsEndingsPaceThe Balky Time MachineGeographyNationalLocal and RegionalTransnational and GlobalComparativeHistoriographyWhat Is New about Your Approach?Are You Working in a Specific Theoretical Tradition?What Have Others Written?Are Others Working on It?What Might Your Critics Say?ProposalPART III SOURCESCHAPTER 5 Sources: An IntroductionPrimary versus Secondary SourcesBalancing Your Use of Secondary SourcesSets of SourcesSources as Records of the PowerfulNo Source Speaks for ItselfLanguages and Specialized ReadingChoose Sources That You LoveCHAPTER 6 Texts as SourcesFirst-Person AccountsDiariesLettersMemoirsInterviewsWorkaday DocumentsPeriodicalsNewspapersMagazinesSpecialized PeriodicalsGovernment DocumentsCriminal Investigations and TrialsCensusesOfficial ReportsLetters and PetitionsInstitutional RecordsScholarshipFictionWordsBig DataCHAPTER 7 Sources beyond Traditional TextsNumbersMapsImagesPortraitsMotion Pictures and RecordingsArtifactsBuildings and PlansPlacesCHAPTER 8 Finding SourcesThe Working BibliographyThe Open WebLimits of the Open WebBibliographic DatabasesFull-Text DatabasesLibrariesOral HistoryCHAPTER 9 Archival ResearchWhat Is an Archive?Archives and AccessWorking in ArchivesRead the Finding AidFollow the RulesWork with ArchivistsResearch with Digital PhotographyTypes of CamerasHow Much to Shoot?Managing ExpectationsCHAPTER 10 Interpreting SourcesPattern RecognitionWorldviewDuck, Duck, GooseCritical ReadingAgendaCredibilityNuanceContextChangeCausationPART IV PROJECTSCHAPTER 11 Project ManagementGoals of Project ManagementAvoid CatastropheComplete Tasks—Ideally Just Once, and in the Right OrderMaintain MomentumTools of the TradeHardwareKinds of SoftwareWord ProcessorsMeans of EntryProductivityA Good Day’s WorkWord Count Is Your FriendManaging Research AssistantsResearch DiaryWhen to StopCHAPTER 12 Taking Notes246GoalsNote-Taking as MiningNote-Taking as AssemblyThe Good-Enough NoteIdentify the Source, So You Can Go Back and Consult if NeededDistinguish Others’ Words and Ideas from Your OwnAllow Sorting and Retrieval of Related Pieces of InformationProvide the Right Level of DetailSimple Tools for NotesNotebooks and Index CardsWord Processors for Note-TakingPlain Text and MarkdownDatabase SoftwareReference ManagersNote-Taking AppsRelational DatabasesSpreadsheetsSpecialized ToolsTimelinesGlossaries and Alphabetical ListsImage CatalogsMappingOther Specialized FormatsThe Working DraftCHAPTER 13 OrganizationScaleThe Foundational Five-Paragraph EssayVariants: The Ten- and Thirty-Page PapersIntroductionsLedesThesis StatementHistoriographyBodySectionsBackgroundSections as Independent EssaysTopic SentencesConclusionsAnswering QuestionsInvisible Bullet PointsThe Perils of Policy PrescriptionsOutlinesA Model (T) OutlineFlexibilityPART V STORIESCHAPTER 14 StorytellingCharactersProtagonistsAntagonistsWitnessesBit PlayersChorusPlotsThe Shape of the StoryThe Controlling IdeaEventsAlchemy: Turning Sources to StoriesChronologyTurning PointsAgonesResolutionCounterfactualsLike a (Realist) NovelSceneDialoguePoint of ViewSymbolic DetailsCombinationsSpeculationCHAPTER 15 StyleWordsIs Your Jargon Really Necessary?Defining TermsWord Choice as AnalysisPeriod Vocabulary or Anachronism?QuotationNontextual InformationIntegrate Images into Your StoryPut Numbers in ContextSummarize Data in Tables and GraphsCitationWhy We CiteCitation StylesRhetorical DevicesActive VerbsPeople as SubjectsMetaphorsSignpostingQuestionsFirst PersonTitlesRevisionPutting It AsideReverse OutliningAuditing Your Word BudgetWriting for the EarCutsCHAPTER 16 PublicationPlaying with OthersConferencesSocial MediaCoauthorshipPeer ReviewTough, Fair, and EncouragingManuscript and Book ReviewsPrintJournal ArticlesBook chaptersBooksPublic EngagementWebsites and Social MediaMuseums and Historic SitesPress Appearances and Op-EdsLaw and PolicyGraphic History, Movies, and Broadway MusicalsLetting GoAcknowledgmentsIndex

"Winner of the James Harvey Robinson Prize, American Historical Association"