Natural Systems

Dr Markus Eichhorn, School of Biology, University of Nottingham, UK.

• Preface xvAcknowledgements xixAbbreviations xxi1 Introduction: defining nature 11.1 How little we know 11.2 Pressing questions 21.3 The hierarchy of nature 21.4 Biodiversity 41.5 Myths to bust 41.6 Further information 51.6.1 Recommended reading 5References 5Part I: Species2 What is a species? 92.1 The big question 92.2 Species concepts 102.2.1 Nominalistic 102.2.2 Morphological 112.2.3 Biological 122.2.4 Phylogenetic 132.2.5 Genetic 142.3 Solving the riddle 162.4 Coda: Species richness 172.5 Conclusions 172.5.1 Recommended reading 172.5.2 Questions for the future 17References 173 The history of life 193.1 The big question 193.2 Sources of evidence 193.2.1 The fossil record 193.2.2 Molecular evidence 203.3 A brief history of diversity 203.4 Uneven diversity 243.5 Conclusions 253.5.1 Recommended reading 263.5.2 Questions for the future 26References 264 How many species are there? 294.1 The big question 294.2 How can we not know? 294.3 Discovery rates 304.4 Scaling 324.5 Sampling-based methods 334.6 Other organisms 364.7 Wrapping up 364.8 Conclusions 374.8.1 Recommended reading 384.8.2 Questions for the future 38References 38Part II: Diversity5 Measuring diversity 435.1 The big question 435.2 Scales of diversity 435.3 Species richness 435.4 Believing in estimates 465.5 A SAD story 475.6 Diversity of species 495.7 Other measures of diversity 515.8 β diversity 535.9 Case study: The Binatang project 545.10 Conclusions 575.10.1 Recommended reading 575.10.2 Questions for the future 57References 576 Niches 616.1 The big question 616.2 Historical background 616.3 Back to basics 636.4 Birth and death rates 636.5 The ZNGI 666.6 Impact vectors 676.7 Supply points 676.8 Coexistence 686.9 The evidence 716.10 Implications 736.11 Conclusions 766.11.1 Recommended reading 776.11.2 Questions for the future 77References 777 Patterns in species richness 797.1 The big question 797.2 Area 797.3 Local and regional species richness 817.4 Local patterns in species richness 857.4.1 Elevation 857.4.2 Depth 887.4.3 Peninsulas and Bays 887.4.4 Isolation 897.4.5 Mid-Domain Effects 897.5 Congruence 897.6 Assembling a model 907.7 Conclusions 917.7.1 Recommended reading 917.7.2 Questions for the future 92References 928 Drivers of diversity 958.1 The big question 958.2 Coexistence or co-occurrence? 958.3 Energy and resources 958.4 Diversity begets diversity 1018.4.1 Heterogeneity in space 1018.4.2 Heterogeneity in time 1038.5 Disturbance 1048.6 Top-down control 1058.7 Expanding our model 1098.8 Conclusions 1108.8.1 Recommended reading 1108.8.2 Questions for the future 111References 1119 Does diversity matter? 1139.1 The big question 1139.2 Ecosystems 1139.3 What shape is the relationship? 1159.4 Field experiments 1179.5 Other measures of diversity 1219.6 Multifunctionality 1229.7 The real world 1259.8 Species richness and productivity 1269.9 Conclusions 1279.9.1 Recommended reading 1279.9.2 Questions for the future 128References 128Part III: Communities10 Organisation at the community scale 13310.1 The big question 13310.2 Definitions 13310.3 Communities in the field 13410.4 Quantitative approaches 13510.5 Community structure 13710.6 Food chains 14010.7 Food webs 14210.8 Complexity and stability 14510.9 Trophic cascades 14710.10 SAD again 14810.11 Complex systems 15110.12 Unified neutral theory 15310.13 Metabolic theory of ecology 15510.14 Conclusions 15610.14.1 Recommended reading 15710.14.2 Questions for the future 157References 15711 Stability 16111.1 The big question 16111.2 Stable states 16111.3 Changing environments 16411.4 Hysteresis 16511.5 Predicting changes 16711.6 Coral reefs 16911.7 Shifting baselines 17011.8 Conclusions 17311.8.1 Recommended reading 17411.8.2 Questions for the future 17511.9 Coda: the seduction of Gaia 175References 17612 Changes through time 17912.1 The big question 17912.2 Succession 17912.3 Succession and niche theory 18012.4 Examples of succession 18212.5 Disturbance 18412.6 Modelling succession 18512.7 Regeneration 18712.8 Plants and animals 18812.9 Case study: Mpala, Kenya 18812.10 Conclusions 19012.10.1 Recommended reading 19012.10.2 Questions for the future 190References 19113 Changes through space 19313.1 The big question 19313.2 Community assembly 19313.2.1 Competitive exclusion 19413.2.2 Historical processes 19613.2.3 Habitat checkerboards 19713.2.4 Chance and contingency 19813.3 Metacommunities 19913.4 Dispersal limitation 20413.5 Combining environment and dispersal 20813.6 Conclusions 21013.6.1 Recommended reading 21013.6.2 Questions for the future 210References 210Part IV: Biogeography14 Global patterns of life 21514.1 The big question 21514.2 Biogeography 21514.3 Phytogeography 21714.4 Ecoregions 22214.5 Empirical approaches 22314.6 The oceans 22514.7 Fresh water 22814.8 Conclusions 22814.8.1 Recommended reading 22914.8.2 Questions for the future 229References 22915 Regional species richness 23315.1 The big question 23315.2 Climate and productivity 23415.3 Other processes 23615.4 Scale and productivity 23815.5 Latitudinal gradients 24015.6 Centres of origin 24315.7 Regional species–area relationships 24415.8 Confounding effects 24415.9 Conclusions 24515.9.1 Recommended reading 24615.9.2 Questions for the future 246References 24616 Latitudinal gradients 24916.1 The big question 24916.2 Hypotheses 24916.3 Geographic area 24916.4 Climatic stability 25116.5 Productivity 25216.6 Niche size 25316.7 Evolutionary speed 25416.8 Out of the tropics 25716.9 Conclusions 26116.9.1 Recommended reading 26216.9.2 Questions for the future 262References 26217 Earth history 26517.1 The big question 26517.2 Geological history 26517.3 Continental drift 26617.4 Echoes of Pangæa 26917.5 Climatic effects 27217.6 Ice ages 27417.7 Sea level 27817.8 Extinctions 27817.9 Conclusions 28117.9.1 Recommended reading 28317.9.2 Questions for the future 283References 28318 Dispersal 28718.1 The big question 28718.2 Range expansion 28718.3 Mechanisms of dispersal 28918.4 Barriers 29018.5 Case studies 29218.5.1 New Zealand 29218.5.2 Madagascar 29518.6 Conclusions 29918.6.1 Recommended reading 30018.6.2 Questions for the future 300References 30019 Life on islands 30319.1 The big question 30319.2 Types of island 30319.3 Island biotas 30519.4 Evolution of endemics 30519.5 Size changes 30719.6 Reproduction and dispersal 31019.7 Super-generalists 31119.8 Endemic communities 31219.9 Disharmony 31219.10 Assembly rules 31419.11 Island species richness 31419.12 The equilibrium model of island biogeography 31719.13 Testing the theory 31919.14 Conclusions 32019.14.1 Recommended reading 32019.14.2 Questions for the future 320References 32020 Reinventing islands 32320.1 The big question 32320.2 A critique of EMIB 32320.3 Rival hypotheses 32620.4 Disturbance 32620.5 Relaxation 32920.6 Extinctions 33120.7 Invasions 33120.8 A new theory? 33220.9 Evolution 33320.10 Conclusions 33820.10.1 Recommended reading 33820.10.2 Questions for the future 338References 33821 What is a natural system? 34121.1 The big question 34121.2 Lessons learnt 34221.2.1 Ecological processes are scale dependent 34221.2.2 All interactions are nested 34221.2.3 There is no such thing as the balance of nature 34221.2.4 Everything is contingent 34321.3 Processes not systems 343References 344Appendix A Diversity analysis case study: Butterfly conservation in the Rocky Mountains 345A.1 Software resources 345A.2 Calculations 346A.3 Synthesis 350A.4 Conclusions 351References 352Glossary 353Index 359