Nanomaterials

Suvardhan Kanchi is currently at the Department of Chemistry, Durban University of Technology, South Africa. He has co-authored about 35 research articles in international peer-reviewed journals as well as 11 book chapters. Shakeel Ahmed is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, Government Degree College Mendhar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. He obtained his Ph.D. in the area of biopolymers and bionanocomposites and has published several research publications in the area of green nanomaterials and biopolymers for various applications including biomedical, packaging, sensors, and water treatment. Myalowenkosi Sabela is currently conducting doctoral research at Durban University of Technology. He is a recipient of the Erasmus Mundus-EUROSA fellowship 2014–2015. His research interest is in pharmacokinetic and enantioselective parameters of pharmaceutical compounds in the presence of biomacromolecules and nanoparticles for applications such as diagnostics and sensors. Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, is an Adjunct Professor, an Academic Advisor and Director of Laboratories in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of several scientific monographs and handbooks in his research areas.

• ContentsPreface xiiiPart I: Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Characterization 11 Synthesis, Characterization and General Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 3Falah H. Hussein, Firas H. Abdulrazzak, and Ayad F. Alkaim1.1 Introduction 41.2 The History of Carbon Nanotubes 51.3 Graphene 71.4 Graphite 101.5 Fullerene 111.6 Rehybridization 111.7 Structure of CNTs 131.8 Classification of Carbon Nanotubes 131.8.1 Classification by Chirality 141.8.2 Classification by Conductivity 151.8.3 Classification by Layers 151.9 Crystal Structures of Carbon Nanotubes 151.10 Synthesis Methods 171.10.1 Arc-Discharge 171.10.2 Laser Ablation 181.10.3 Flame Methods 191.10.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 201.11 The Purification Process of Carbon Nanotubes 221.12 Mechanism of Growth CNTs 231.12.1 The Model for Carbon Filament Growth 231.12.1.1 Tip Growth Model 241.12.1.2 Base Growth Model 241.12.2 Free Radical Condensate 251.12.3 Yarmulke Mechanism 261.13  Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 271.13.1 Electronic Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 271.13.2 Mechanical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 281.14 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 281.14.1 Fuel Cells 291.14.2 Solar Cells 301.14.3 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells 321.15 Characterization of CNTs 321.15.1 Raman Spectroscopy 321.15.1.1 G band 361.15.1.2 D Band 371.15.1.3 Radial Breathing Mode 371.15.2 X-Ray Diffraction 381.15.3 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 391.15.4 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis 411.15.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy 431.15.6 Scanning Electronic Microscopy 451.15.7 Scanning Helium Ion Microscopy 461.16 Composite of CNTs/Semiconductors 471.17 Recent Updates on Synthesis of CNTs 49References 502 Synthesis and Characterization of Phosphorene: A Novel 2D Material 61Sima Umrao, Narsingh R. Nirala, Gaurav Khandelwal, and Vinod Kumar2.1 Introduction 612.1.1 History of Phosphorene 622.1.2 Crystal Structure 632.1.3 Band Structure 652.2 Synthesis of Phosphorene 652.2.1 Mechanical Exfoliation 652.2.2 Plasma-assisted Method 662.2.3 Liquid-Phase Exfoliation 682.2.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 702.3 Characterization of Phosphorene 702.3.1 Structural Charcterizations 712.3.2 Spectroscopic Characterizations 732.3.3 Optical Band Gap Characterization 762.4 Environment Stability Issue of Phosphorene 802.5 Summary and Future Prospective 82References 833 Graphene for Advanced Organic PhotovoltaicsTanvir Arfin and Shoeb Athar3.1 Introduction 933.2 History of Graphene 943.3 Structure of Graphene 943.4 Graphene Family Nanomaterials 943.5 Properties of Graphene 953.5.1 Physicochemical Properties 953.5.2 Thermal and Electrical Properties 963.5.3 Optical Properties 963.5.4 Mechanical Properties 963.5.5 Biological Properties 963.6 Graphene for Advanced Organic Photovoltaics 963.6.2 Acceptor Material in OPVs 983.6.3 Interfacial Layer in OPVs 1003.7 Conclusion 102References 1024 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes by Chemical Vapor DepositionFalah H. Hussein and Firas H. Abdulrazzak4.1 Introduction 1054.2 Synthesis Methods 1074.2.1 Arc-Discharge 1084.2.2 Laser Ablation 1094.2.3 Flame Methods 1094.2.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 1104.3 The Parameters of CVD 1124.3.1 CNT Precursors 1124.3.2 Type of Catalyst 1144.3.3 Effect of Temperature 1153.4.4 Gas Flow Rates 1164.4 Deformations and Defects in Carbon Nanotubes 1184.4.1 Deformations in Carbon Nanotubes 1184.4.2 Defects in Carbon Nanotubes 1204.5 Characterization of CNTs 1234.6 Conclusion 126References 126Part II: Environmental Applications 1335 A Review of Pharmaceutical Wastewater Treatment with Nanostructured Titanium Dioxide 135Lavanya Madhura and Shalini Singh5.1 Introduction 1355.2 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 1375.3 Pharmaceuticals in the Environment 1375.4 Role of TiO2 in Photocatalysis for Degradation, Mineralization, and Transformation Process of Pharmaceuticals 1385.5 Applications 1395.6 Conclusion 146Acknowledgment 147References 1476 Nanosilica Particles in Food: A Case of Synthetic Amorphous Silica 153Rookmoney Thakur and Shalini Singh6.1 Introduction 1536.1.1 The Different Forms of Silica 1556.1.2 Synthetic Amorphous Silica 1566.1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of SAS 1576.1.4 Silica Applications in the Food Industry 1576.1.5 Toxicity 1586.1.6 Conclusion 159References 1607 Bio-sensing Performance of Magnetite Nanocomposite for Biomedical Applications 165Rajasekhar Chokkareddy, Natesh Kumar Bhajanthri, Bakusele Kabane, and Gan G. Redhi7.1 Introduction 1667.1.1 Hematite 1667.1.2 Maghemite 1687.1.3 Magnetite 1697.1.4 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 1707.1.5 Types of Magnetic Substances 1707.1.5.1 Paramagnetic Substances 1717.1.5.2 Diamagnetic Substances 1717.1.5.3 Ferri Magnetic Substances 1727.1.5.4 Ferro Magnetic Substances 1727.1.5.5 Anti-ferro Magnetic Substances 1737.1.6 Shape, Size, and Magnetic Properties 1777.1.7 Synthesis Methods of Magnetic Nanoparticles 1787.1.8 Advantages of Magnetic Nanomaterials 1787.1.9 Surface Modifications of Magnetic Nanoparticles 1817.2 Potential Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles 1817.2.1 Magnetic Separation 1827.2.2 Magnetic Resonance Image 1847.2.3 Targeted Drug Delivery Systems 1867.2.4 Magnetic Hyperthermia 1887.2.5 Gene Delivery 1907.3 Conclusion 191References 1928 The Importance of Screening Information DATA Set in Nanotechnology 197Khan Ameera Bibi, Suruj Gitesh, and Shalini Singh8.1 Introduction 1988.2 Review of the Literature 2018.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes 2018.2.2 Nanosilver 2038.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes vs. Asbestos 2038.2.4 Density 2058.2.5 Risk Assessment 2058.2.6 Using SIDS as a Risk Assessment Tool for ENPs 2068.3 Behavioral Patterns of Engineered Nanoparticles 2068.3.1 Products Containing Nanosilver 2078.3.2 Toxicity Effects of Nanosilver on Humans 2088.3.3 Toxicity Effects on the Environment 2108.4 Conclusions and Recommendations 213References 2139 Nanomaterials for Biohydrogen Production 217Periyasamy Sivagurunathan, Abudukeremu Kadier, Ackmez Mudhoo, Gopalakrishnan Kumar, Kuppam Chandrasekhar, Takuro Kobayashi, and Kaiqin Xu9.1 Introduction 2189.2 Major Biohydrogen Production Pathways 2199.2.1 Biophotolysis 2199.2.2 Photo-fermentation 2209.2.3 Dark fermentation 2209.2.4 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 2219.3 Nanaparticle Effects on Biohydrogen Production 2229.3.1 Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production 2229.3.2 Photo Fermentative Hydrogen Production 2239.3.3 Photocatalytic Hydrogen (H2) Production 2269.3.4 MEC-based hydrogen production 2269.4 Biohydrogen Producing Associated with Immobilized Enzymes (Cellulases and Hydrogenases) 2279.5 Outlook and Concluding Notes 229Acknowledgment 232References 23210 A Framework for Using Nanotechnology in Military Gear 239Hlophe Nkosingiphile.Siphesihle, Mbatha Precious Hlengiwe, and Shalini Singh10.1 Introduction 24010.2 Literature Review 24110.2.2 Ballistic Protection Properties 24110.2.3 Biological and Chemical Protection Properties 24210.2.4 Health Monitoring Sensing Properties 24210.2.5 UV Protection Properties 24310.2.6 Ethics, Safety, and the Enhancement of Soldier’s Performance 24310.2.7 Risks in Engineered Nanomaterials 24410.2.8 Control of Risks 24510.3 Application of Nanotechnology in the Military 24610.3.1 Protective Properties 24610.3.1.2 Biological and Chemical Hazard Protection 24710.3.1.3 Injury Protection 24810.3.2 Medical properties 24810.3.2.2 Tissue Repair 24810.3.3 Ethics, Safety, and the Enhancement of Soldier’s Performance 24810.3.4 Key Transmissions of ENM Exposure 24910.4 Conclusions 25110.4.1 Recommendations 252References 253Part III: Biological Applications 25711 Plasmonic Nanopores: A New Approach Toward Single Molecule Detection 259Gaurav Khandelwal, Sima Umrao, Narsingh R. Nirala, Sadhana S Sagar, and Vinod Kumar11.1 Introduction 26011.1.1 Biological Nanopores 26111.1.2 Solid State Nanopores 26111.1.3 Plasmoinc Nanopore 26211.2 Sensing Principles of Plasmonic Nanopore 26411.2.1 Fabrication of Plasmonic Nanopores 26511.2.1.1 Materials of Choice 26511.2.1.2 Lithography 26611.2.1.3 Multilayers 26711.3 Optical Properties 26711.4 Improving Performance 26811.4.1 Use of a New Kind of Structures 26911.4.2 Use of New Spectroscopy Techniques 26911.5 Surface Patterning 27011.6 Applications – Next-Generation DNA Sequencing and Beyond 27111.7 Some Other Sensing Examples 27511.8 Future Perspectives 277References 27812 Catalytically Active Enzyme Mimetic Nanomaterials and Their Role in Biosensing 285Narsingh R. Nirala, Sima Umrao, Gaurav Khandelwal, and Vinod Kumar12.1 Introduction 28612.2 Different Types of Catalytically Active Enzyme Mimetic Nanomaterials 28612.2.1 Carbon Derivative-based Enzyme Mimetic Nanomaterials 28712.2.1.1 Carbon Nanotubes 28712.2.1.2 Graphene Oxide 28812.2.1.3 Graphene Quantum Dots 28912.2.1.4 Graphene-Hemin Nanocomposites 29012.2.2 Nobel Metal Nanoparticle-based Enzyme Mimetic Nanomaterials 29012.2.2.1 Gold Nanoparticles 29012.2.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticle-based Enzyme Mimetic Nanomaterials 29212.3 Applications of Catalytically Active Nanomaterials in Biosensing 29212.3.1 Biosensors 29212.3.1.1 H2O2 Detection 29312.3.1.2 Glucose Detection Peroxidase-like Nanozymes Coupled 29412.3.1.3 Immunoassays 294References 296