Law on the Battlefield

A. P. V. Rogers is a Former Senior Fellow at the Lauterpacht Centre for International Law at the University of Cambridge

• 1General principlesArmed conflictMilitary necessityHumanityRule of distinctionCivilians and combatantsTaking a direct part in hostilitiesCivilian property and military targetsCivilians and civilian objects protectedRule of proportionalityIndiscriminate attacksCustomary lawTreaty lawDefinition of attack2Enemy armed forcesI Good faithWho is a member of the enemy armed forces?Child fightersPerfidy and ruses of warPerfidyRuses of warDifference between perfidy and ruses of warTactics: ambush, sniping, sabotageUniformUse of enemy uniformMisuse of emblemsIntelligence gatheringAssassinationOutlawryPsychological warfareII HumanityAttacking food and water used by members of enemy armed forcesSurrenderSafeguard of persons hors de combatOccupants of aircraft and vehiclesQuarterUnusual conditions of combatWounded, sick and deadPrisoners of warHumane treatmentMaintenance and medical treatmentSearchingSecurityInterrogationEvacuation3Wounded, sick and shipwreckedThe Geneva emblemObjects of protectionThe wounded, sick, shipwrecked, dead and missingMedical unitsMedical personnelProtectionIdentificationRetained personnelUse of armsDutiesMedical installations and equipmentMedical transportsGeneral protectionMedical aircraftMedical ships and craftNeutrality law and the wounded and sickReligious personnelHospital and safety zones4Military objectivesCurrent LawThe Gulf war 1991Kosovo 1999A reappraisal of the definition of military objectives?Afghanistan 2001Iraq 2003Television stations as targetsConclusionsExamples of military objectivesObjects protected from attack5Precautions in attackThe Hague RegulationsDestruction or damageNon-combatantsWarningsAssaultBombardmentNecessary stepsPrecautionsAir Warfare RulesGreco-German Mixed Arbitral TribunalSecond World War PracticeAir warfareMonte CassinoEvents From 1945 to1977Current LawPrecautions in attack‘Attack’ and ‘feasible’Precautions‘Concrete and direct’Warning‘Unless circumstances do not permit’SiegesThe Gulf war 1991Allied bombing campaignKosovo 1999Air-war targetingAfghanistan 2001Iraq 2003Legal responsibilities in practiceGeneral principlesLevels of responsibilityConclusionsGuidelines: offensive operations checklistPracticalities6Precautions against the effects of attacksCurrent LawPrecautions against the effects of attacksRemove civilians and civilian objectsAvoid densely populated areasProtect civiliansFeasibleOwn territoryUsing civilians to shield military objects or operationsFailure of defenders; position of attackersCivil defenceZonesOther protected objectsOpen or undefended towns7Cultural propertyProtected propertyThe Hague RegulationsAir Warfare RulesRoerich PactDraft convention of 1939Second World War practiceCultural PropertyCultural Property ConventionScope of applicationDefinitionBasic protectionSpecial protectionEnhanced protectionWaiver of protectionPrecautions in attackPrecautions in defenceOccupationTransportsPersonnelProtective emblemSupervisionEnforcementMeasures for complianceSending and receiving statesDiscussionCultural property and places of worshipProtocol IDiscussionICC StatuteDubrovnikIraqThe definition of cultural propertyConclusions8Environmental ProtectionCurrent LawProperty protectionEnvironmental protectionENMOD ConventionProtocol IRelationship between the ENMOD Convention and Protocol IOther provisions of Protocol IParticular weaponsConventional weaponsMines and other remnants of warNuclear weaponsIncendiary weaponsChemical and biological weaponsFuel-air explosiveDepleted uraniumEffect on neutral statesIraqOil pollutionNuclear facilitiesDiverting riversDepleted uraniumEvaluationConclusionsThe future9Belligerent occupationI Authority over occupied territoryTransition for war fighting to occupationCommencement of occupationTemporary nature of occupationLegal position of partiesHuman rights lawDuties and rights of the occupying powerDuties and rights of the populationTermination of occupationPostscript on IraqII Security issuesWithdrawal of right of communicationPowers relating to propertyUse or requisitioning of private property?Destruction of propertyCompulsory labourRationingBlockadeEvacuationDeportations and transfersSettlementsReprisalsHostage takingPolicing, riot control; resistanceShort-term detention and interrogationTrial and punishmentAssigned residence and internment Conditions of internmentSecurity barriers10The conduct of hostilities in internal armed conflictsLaw applicableExistence of an armed conflictTypes of internal armed conflictThe conduct of hostilities in internal armed conflictsEnemy armed forcesCivilian immunityForced movement of civiliansMilitary objectives and civilian objectsPrecautions in attackPrecautions against the effects of attacks`Cultural propertyEnvironmental protectionCriminal responsibilityBelligerent reprisalsInternal armed conflicts, a summary of the rules11Command ResponsibilityThe war crimes trialsException for detailAssumption of legality of orders not obviously unlawfulDuty to prevent crimesDuty to take stepsKnowledgeIgnorance of reportsCases where commander put on noticeProof of knowledge, summaryOffences by persons not under commandDuty/liabilityEvidenceStaff officersProtocol IThe commander’s responsibility for war crimes committed by his subordinates (Protocol I, Art. 86, para. 2)Duty of commanders to deal with breaches (Protocol I, Art. 87, para. 3)Recent developmentsICTY StatuteICC StatuteConclusionsMilitary discipline and superior orders12Implementation and enforcement of the law of warI ImplementationPracticeCommand influenceReciprocityHostage taking prohibitedNuremberg principlesLegal mechanismsBelligerent reprisalsTraining and disseminationInternational assistanceInternational co-operationFact-finding and inquiriesInternational Committee of the Red CrossCompensationII EnforcementWar crimes and grave breachesWar crimesGrave breachesWar crimes and internal armed conflictCriminal responsibilityIndividual criminal responsibilityResponsibility of commandersResponsibility of statesMental element of war crimesDefences to war crimes chargesAccidentDuressIgnorance of lawMistake of factSuperior ordersInternational Criminal CourtIII The contribution of the military lawyer NegotiatorManual WriterInstructorLegal adviserSome legal aspects of peace support operationsProsecutorFinal remarksBibliography