Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry

Morris Hein is professor emeritus of chemistry at Mt. San Antonio College, where he regularly taught the preparatory chemistry course and organic chemistry. He is the original author of Foundations of College Chemistry and his name has become synonymous with clarity, meticulous accuracy and a step-by-step approach that students can follow. Over the years, more than three million students have learned chemistry using a text by Morris Hein. In addition to Foundations of College chemistry, 12e, he is co-author of Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry, 8e, and Introduction to Organic and Biochemistry. He is also co-author of Foundations of chemistry in the Laboratory, 12e, and Introduction to General, Organic and Biochemistry in the Laboratory, 8e.

• 1 An Introduction to Chemistry 11.1 The Nature of Chemistry 21.2 A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 31.3 The Particulate Nature of Matter 51.4 Classifying Matter 7Review 9Review Questions 10Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises 11Answers to Practice Exercises 122 Standards for Measurement 132.1 Scientific Notation 142.2 Measurement and Uncertainty 152.3 Significant Figures 162.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 182.5 The Metric System 212.6 Dimensional Analysis: A Problem-Solving Method 272.7 Measurement of Temperature 30 Chemistry in action Setting Standards 322.8 Density 34       Review 37Review Questions 38Paired Exercises 39Additional Exercises 41Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 433 Elements and Compounds 443.1 Elements 453.2 Introduction to the Periodic Table 493.3 Compounds and Formulas 52Review 57Review Questions 58Paired Exercises 59Additional Exercises 60Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 614 Properties of Matter 624.1 Properties of Substances 634.2 Physical and Chemical Changes 654.3 Learning to Solve Problems 684.4 Energy 684.5 Heat: Quantitative Measurement 704.6 Energy in the Real World 72Review 74Review Questions 75Paired Exercises 76Additional Exercises 77Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 78Putting It Together Chapters 1–4 review 795 Early Atomic Theory and Structure 825.1 Dalton’s Model of the Atom 835.2 Electric Charge 845.3 Subatomic Parts of the Atom 855.4 The Nuclear Atom 875.5 Isotopes of the Elements 895.6 Atomic Mass 92Review 93Review Questions 94Paired Exercises 95Additional Exercises 96Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 976 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 986.1 Common and Systematic Names 996.2 Elements and Ions 1006.3 Writing Formulas from Names of Ionic Compounds 1036.4 Naming Binary Compounds 1056.5 Naming Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 1096.6 Acids 111Review 114Review Questions 115Paired Exercises 116Additional Exercises 117Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 118Putting It Together Chapters 5–6 review 1197 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 1217.1 The Mole 1227.2 Molar Mass of Compounds 1267.3 Percent Composition of Compounds 1297.4 Calculating Empirical Formulas 1337.5 Calculating the Molecular Formula from the Empirical Formula 135Review 138Review Questions, Paired Exercises 139Additional Exercises 141Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 1428 Chemical Equations 1438.1 The Chemical Equation 1448.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 1458.3 Types of Chemical Equations 1508.4 Heat in Chemical Reactions 1568.5 Global Warming: The Greenhouse Effect 159Review 161Review Questions, Paired Exercises 163Additional Exercises 165Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 1669 Calculations from Chemical Equations 1679.1 Introduction to Stoichiometry 1689.2 Mole–Mole Calculations 1709.3 Mole–Mass Calculations 1739.4 Mass–Mass Calculations 1749.5 Limiting Reactant and Yield Calculations 176Review 182Review Questions, Paired Exercises 183Additional Exercises 185Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 187Putting It Together Chapters 7–9 review 18810 Modern Atomic Theory and the Periodic Table 19110.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 19210.2 The Bohr Atom 19310.3 Energy Levels of Electrons 19510.4 Atomic Structures of the First 18 Elements 19810.5 Electron Structures and the Periodic Table 201Review 206Review Questions 207Paired Exercises 208Additional Exercises 210Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 21111 Chemical Bonds: The Formation of Compounds from Atoms 21211.1 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 21311.2 Lewis Structures of Atoms 21611.3 The Ionic Bond: Transfer of Electrons from One Atom to Another 21711.4 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds 22211.5 The Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons 22411.6 Electronegativity 22611.7 Lewis Structures of Compounds 22911.8 Complex Lewis Structures 23211.9 Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 23411.10 Molecular Shape 235Review 239Review Questions 240Paired Exercises 241Additional Exercises 243Challenge Exercises 244Answers to Practice Exercises 245Putting It Together Chapters 10–11 review 24612 The Gaseous State of Matter 24812.1 Properties of Gases 24912.2 Boyle’s Law 25212.3 Charles’ Law 25612.4 Avogadro’s Law 25912.5 Combined Gas Laws 26012.6 Ideal Gas Law 26412.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 26712.8 Density of Gases 27012.9 Gas Stoichiometry 270Review 274Review Questions 276Paired Exercises 277Additional Exercises 279Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 28113 Liquids 28213.1 States of Matter: A Review 28313.2 Properties of Liquids 28313.3 Boiling Point and Melting Point 28613.4 Changes of State 28813.5 Intermolecular Forces 29013.6 Hydrates 29513.7 Water, a Unique Liquid 297Review 300Review Questions 301Paired Exercises 302Additional Exercises 303Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 30414 Solutions 30514.1 General Properties of Solutions 30614.2 Solubility 30714.3 Rate of Dissolving Solids 31114.4 Concentration of Solutions 31214.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions 32014.6 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 325Review 326Review Questions 328Paired Exercises 329Additional Exercises 332Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 333Putting It Together Chapters 12–14 review 33415 Acids, Bases, and Salts 33715.1 Acids and Bases 33815.2 Reactions of Acids and Bases 34215.3 Salts 34315.4 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 34415.5 Introduction to pH 34915.6 Neutralization 35215.7 Writing Net Ionic Equations 35415.8 Acid Rain 356Review 357Review Questions, Paired Exercises 359Additional Exercises 361Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 36216 Chemical Equilibrium 36316.1 Rates of Reaction 36416.2 Chemical Equilibrium 36516.3 Le Châtelier’s Principle 36616.4 Equilibrium Constants 37316.5 Ion Product Constant for Water 37416.6 Ionization Constants 37616.7 Solubility Product Constant 37816.8 Buffer Solutions: The Control of pH 381Review 383Review Questions 384Paired Exercises 385Additional Exercises 387Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 38917 Oxidation–Reduction 39017.1 Oxidation Number 39117.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 39517.3 Balancing Ionic Redox Equations 39817.4 Activity Series of Metals 40117.5 Electrolytic and Voltaic Cells 403Review 407Review Questions 409Paired Exercises 410Additional Exercises 412Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 413Putting It Together Chapters 15–17 review 41418 Nuclear Chemistry 41718.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 41818.2 Alpha Particles, Beta Particles, and Gamma Rays 42118.3 Radioactive Disintegration Series 42418.4 Measurement of Radioactivity 42618.5 Nuclear Energy 42718.6 Mass–Energy Relationship in Nuclear Reactions 43318.7 Biological Effects of Radiation 434Review 436Review Questions 437Paired Exercises 438Additional Exercises 439Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 440Putting It Together Chapter 18 review 44119 Organic Chemistry: Saturated Hydrocarbons 44319.1 Organic Chemistry: History and Scope 44419.2 The Carbon Atom: Bonding, Shape, and Hybridization 44519.3 Classifying Organic Compounds 44719.4 Hydrocarbons 44919.5 Saturated Hydrocarbons: Alkanes 45019.6 Structural Formulas 45119.7 Isomerism 45319.8 Naming Organic Compounds 45619.9 Introduction to the Reactions of Carbon 46119.10 Reactions of Alkanes 46319.11 Cycloalkanes 46819.12 Gasoline: A Major Petroleum Product 471Review 473Review Questions, Paired Exercises 475Additional Exercises 478Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 47920 Unsaturated and Aromatic Hydrocarbons 48120.1 Bonding in Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 48220.2 Nomenclature of Alkenes 48420.3 Geometric Isomerism in Alkenes 48720.4 Cycloalkenes 49220.5 Preparation and Properties of Alkenes 49320.6 Nomenclature and Properties of Alkynes 49920.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Structure of Benzene 50120.8 Naming Aromatic Compounds 50320.9 Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 50820.10 Sources and Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons 510Review 513Review Questions 514Paired Exercises 515Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercises 518Answers to Practice Exercises 51921 Polymers: Macromolecules 52021.1 Macromolecules 52121.2 Synthetic Polymers 52121.3 Polymer Types 52221.4 Addition Polymerization 52321.5 Recycling Plastics 52521.6 Butadiene Polymers 52721.7 Geometric Isomerism in Polymers 529Review 530Review Questions, Paired Exercises 531Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 532Putting It Together Chapters 19–21 review 53322 Alcohols, Ethers, Phenols, and Thiols 53722.1 Structure and Classification of Alcohols 53822.2 Naming Alcohols 54022.3 Physical Properties of Alcohols 54222.4 Chemical Properties of Alcohols 54422.5 Common Alcohols 55122.6 Phenols 55422.7 Properties and Preparation of Phenols 55722.8 Ethers 55822.9 Properties and Preparation of Ethers 56122.10 Thiols 563Review 564Review Questions, Paired Exercises 566Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercises 570Answers to Practice Exercises 57123 Aldehydes and Ketones 57223.1 Structures of Aldehydes and Ketones 57323.2 Naming Aldehydes and Ketones 57323.3 Bonding and Physical Properties 57723.4 Chemical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones 58023.5 Common Aldehydes and Ketones 58823.6 Condensation Polymers 590Review 591Review Questions 592Paired Exercises 593Additional Exercises 595Challenge Exercise 596Answers to Practice Exercises 597Putting It Together Chapters 22–23 review 59824 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 60324.1 Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature and Sources of Aliphatic Carboxylic Acids 60424.2 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids 60724.3 Classification of Carboxylic Acids 60924.4 Preparation and Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids 61324.5 Nomenclature of Esters 61824.6 Occurrence and Physical Properties of Esters 62124.7 Polyesters: Condensation Polymers 62124.8 Chemical Properties of Esters 62224.9 Glycerol Esters 62424.10 Soaps and Synthetic Detergents 62724.11 Esters and Anhydrides of Phosphoric Acid 631Review 632Review Questions, Paired Exercises 635Additional Exercises 638Challenge Exercises 639Answers to Practice Exercises 64025 Amides and Amines: Organic Nitrogen Compounds 64125.1 Amides: Nomenclature and Physical Properties 64225.2 Chemical Properties of Amides 64625.3 Polyamides: Condensation Polymers 64725.4 Urea 64825.5 Amines: Nomenclature and Physical Properties 64825.6 Preparation of Amines 65325.7 Chemical Properties of Amines 65425.8 Sources and Uses of Selected Amines 657Review 660Review Questions 661Paired Exercises 662Additional Exercises 664Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 665Putting It Together Chapters 24–25 review 66626 Stereoisomerism 67126.1 Review of Isomerism 67226.2 Plane-Polarized Light and Optical Activity 67226.3 Fischer Projection Formulas 67526.4 Enantiomers 67726.5 Racemic Mixtures 68226.6 Diastereomers and Meso Compounds 684Review 687Review Questions, Paired Exercises 688Additional Exercises 691Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 69227 Carbohydrates 69427.1 Carbohydrates: A First Class of Biochemicals 69527.2 Classification of Carbohydrates 69627.3 Importance of Carbohydrates for Life 69827.4 Common Monosaccharides 69927.5 Structure of Glucose and Other Aldoses 70027.6 Cyclic Structures of Common Hexoses 70427.7 Hemiacetals and Acetals 70827.8 Pentoses 70927.9 Structures and Properties of Disaccharides 71027.10 Sweeteners and Diet 71327.11 Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides 71527.12 Polysaccharides 719Review 724Review Questions, Paired Exercises 727Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercises 729Answers to Practice Exercises 73028 Lipids 73128.1 Lipid Characteristics and Classification 73228.2 Simple Lipids 73328.3 Fats in Metabolism 73828.4 Compound Lipids 73928.5 Steroids 74328.6 Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology 744Review 750Review Questions 751Paired Exercises 752Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 753Putting It Together Chapters 26–28 review 75429 Amino Acids, Polypeptides, and Proteins 75929.1 The Structure–Function Connection 76029.2 The Nature of Amino Acids 76029.3 Formation of Polypeptides 76629.4 Protein Structure 77029.5 Protein Functions 77329.6 Some Examples of Proteins and Their Structures 77529.7 Loss of Protein Structure 78329.8 Tests for Proteins and Amino Acids 78429.9 Determination of the Primary Structure of Polypeptides 787Review 789Review Questions, Paired Exercises 792Additional Exercises 794Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 79530 Enzymes 79630.1 Molecular Accelerators 79730.2 Rates of Chemical Reactions 79830.3 Enzyme Kinetics 80130.4 Industrial-Strength Enzymes 80330.5 Enzyme Active Site 80530.6 Temperature and pH Effects on Enzyme Catalysis 80830.7 Enzyme Regulation 809Review 811Review Questions 812Paired Exercises 813Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 81431 Nucleic Acids and Heredity 81531.1 Molecules of Heredity—Bases and Nucleosides 81631.2 Nucleotides: Phosphate Esters 81931.3 High-Energy Nucleotides 82031.4 Polynucleotides; Nucleic Acids 82231.5 Structure of DNA 82331.6 DNA Replication 82731.7 RNA: Genetic Transcription 83331.8 The Genetic Code—Genes and Medicine 83631.9 Biosynthesis of Proteins 83931.10 Changing the Genome: Mutations and Genetic Engineering 840Review 844Review Questions 846Paired Exercises 847Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 848Putting It Together Chapters 29–31 review 85032 Nutrition 85432.1 Nutrients and Diet 85532.2 Energy in the Diet 85732.3 Macronutrients 85832.4 Vitamins, Vital Micronutrients 86132.5 Minerals 86332.6 Water 86432.7 Nutrition Content Labeling 86432.8 Food Additives 86632.9 A Balanced Diet 86832.10 Human Digestion 870Review 873Review Questions, Paired Exercises 875Additional Exercises 876Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 87733 Bioenergetics 87833.1 Metabolism and Cell Structure 87933.2 Biological Oxidation–Reduction: An Important Energy Source 88033.3 Molecular Oxygen and Metabolism 88433.4 High-Energy Phosphate Bonds 88533.5 Phosphorylation: Energy Transfer 88633.6 ATP Use and Muscle Contraction 88933.7 Photosynthesis 892Review 893Review Questions 894Paired Exercises 895Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 89634 Carbohydrate Metabolism 89734.1 Metabolic Pathways, Carbohydrates, and Cooperation 89834.2 Anaerobic Sequence 90334.3 Citric Acid Cycle (Aerobic Sequence) 90734.4 Gluconeogenesis 91034.5 Overview of Complex Metabolic Pathways 91034.6 Hormones 91234.7 Blood Glucose and Hormones 913Review 915Review Questions, Paired Exercises 917Additional Exercises 918Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 91935 Metabolism of Lipids and Proteins 92035.1 Metabolic Energy Sources: Organs Working Together for the Common Good 92135.2 Fatty Acid Oxidation (Beta Oxidation) 92235.3 Fat Storage and Biosynthesis (Lipogenesis) 92635.4 Ketone Bodies 92835.5 Metabolic Nitrogen Fixation 92935.6 Amino Acids and Metabolic Nitrogen Balance 93135.7 Amino Acids and Nitrogen Transfer 93235.8 Nitrogen Excretion and the Urea Cycle 93435.9 Acetyl-CoA, Central Molecule in Metabolism 936Review 938Review Questions, Paired Exercises 940Additional Exercises, Challenge Exercise 941Answers to Practice Exercises 942Putting It Together Chapters 32–35 review 943AppendicesI. Mathematical Review A-1II. Using a Scientific Calculator A-10III. Units of Measurement A-14IV. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-15V. Solubility Table A-16VI. Answers to Selected Exercises A-17VII. Answers to Putting It Together Review Exercises A-48Glossary G-1Index I-1