Introduction to Behavior Analysis

Gregory J. Madden, PhD, is a Professor of Psychology at Utah State University. His research foci are on impulsivity, drug-taking, pollution control, and health decision-making. He was Editor-in-Chief of the APA Handbook of Behavior Analysis and the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. He is a Fellow of the Association for Behavior Analysis International.Derek D. Reed, PhD, BCBA-D, is a Professor of Applied Behavioral Science at the University of Kansas. His research applies behavioral economic concepts to inform public policy and address issues of societal importance. He has served as Associate Editor for The Psychological Record, Behavior Analysis in Practice, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, and Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior.Florence D. DiGennaro Reed, PhD, BCBA-D, is an Associate Professor of Applied Behavioral Science at the University of Kansas. Her research examines effective and efficient staff training and performance improvement practices in human service settings. She also conducts translational research in on-campus laboratory facilities. Dr. DiGennaro Reed has served as Associate Editor for Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Journal of Behavioral Education, and Behavior Analysis in Practice.

• Preface xv1 An Introduction to Behavior Analysis 1What Is Behavior? 1What Is Behavior Analysis? 3The Goals of Behavior Analysis 3The First Goal of Behavior Analysis 3The Second Goal of Behavior Analysis 5Demand More of Your Science 5Reading Quiz 1 6The Assumptions of Behavior Analysis 6Assumption #1: Behavior is determined 6Mentalistic Explanations of Behavior 7I’m Not Buying It. I Determine My Own Behavior 8Assumption #2: The scientific method is a valid way to reveal the determinants of behavior 10Reading Quiz 2 11Scientific Method 12Reading Quiz 3 15What Are the Determinants of Behavior? 15Nature 15Nurture 16Behavioral Epigenetics 16The Activities of Behavior Analysts 17The Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17Applied Behavior Analysis 18Behavioral Service Delivery 18Extra Box 1: Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis 19Organizational Behavior Management 20Summary 20Reading Quiz 4 20Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 20Notes 21References 222 Understanding Behavioral Research 23Variables 24Correlation vs Causation 24Experiments 25Three Components of a Behavioral Experiment 26Reading Quiz 1 27Measuring Behavior 27Behavioral Definitions 28Observable and Objective 29Refining the Behavioral Definition 29Social Validity of the Behavioral Definition 29Finalizing the Behavioral Definition 30Interobserver Agreement (IOA) 30What IOA Is Not 31Reading Quiz 2 31Dimensions of Behavior 32Frequency 32Latency 32Duration 32Magnitude 33Four Direct-Observation Methods 33Outcome Recording 33When to Use Outcome Recording 34Calculating IOA When Using Outcome Recording 35Event Recording 36When to Use Event Recording 37Calculating IOA When Using Event Recording 37Interval Recording 39When to Use Interval Recording 39Calculating IOA When Using Partial- or Whole-Interval Recording 40Duration Recording 41When to Use Duration Recording 41Calculating IOA When Using Duration Recording 41Reading Quiz 3 42Summary 43Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 44Note 45References 453 Experimental Designs in Behavior Analysis 47Group Experimental Designs 49Single-Subject Experimental Designs 51Internal Validity of Single-Subject Experimental Designs 51Four Types of Single-Subject Experimental Designs 52Comparison (A-B) Design 52Reversal (A-B-A) Design 54Alternating-Treatments Design 55Multiple-Baseline Designs 57Defining Features of Single-Subject Designs 61Three Kinds of Replication 62Reading Quiz 1 63Did Behavior Change? 64Two Patterns of Behavior Change 65What Makes a Change Convincing? 65Guidelines for Conducting the Visual Analysis 67What Is Responsible for the Change 71Reading Quiz 2 72Supplementing the Visual Analysis with Inferential Statistics 75Summary 76Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 77Notes 80References 804 Phylogenetic Behavior and Pavlovian Learning 82Phylogenetically Selected Behavior 83Reflex Learning – Habituation 84The “Nature and Nurture” Answer to the “Nature vs Nurture” Debate 85Elicited or Evoked? 85Reading Quiz 1 86Pavlovian Learning 86A Simple Pavlovian Conditioning Procedure 87Pavlovian Conditioning of Emotions 88Pavlovian Fear Conditioning 89The Little Albert Experiment 90What Became of Little Albert? 91Fear Conditioning and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 92Reading Quiz 2 92What Is Learned During Pavlovian Conditioning? 93Three Things Learned During Pavlovian Conditioning 94Principles of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning 95Applying these principles to PTSD 100Reading Quiz 3 100Generalization 101Pavlovian Extinction-Based Therapy 103Graduated Exposure Therapy 104Spontaneous Recovery 105Extra Box 1: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Veterans 107Reading Quiz 4 108Pavlovian Conditioning in Everyday Life 108Taste-Aversion Learning 109Advertising 110Summary 111Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 111Notes 112References 1135 Operant Learning I: Reinforcement 117Operant Behavior 117Reading Quiz 1 118Response–Consequence Contingencies 119Learning Response–Consequence Contingencies 120Noncontingent Consequences 122Superstitious Behavior 123Reading Quiz 2 123Changing Behavior with Contingent Consequences 124Extra Box 1: Noncontingent Consequences in North Korea 125Reinforcers, Reinforcement, and Rewards 126Reading Quiz 3 127The Discovery of Reinforcement 127How to Tell If a Consequence Functions as a Reinforcer 128From Puzzle Boxes to Skinner Boxes 130Reading Quiz 4 131Response Variability: Exploring and Exploiting 131Extra Box 2: Add Some Variability to Your Life 132The Generic Nature of Operant Behavior 133Not Every Consequence Functions as a Reinforcer 134Reading Quiz 5 134Reinforcement in Social Media and Video Games 137Games for Good 137Summary 138Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Table 5.2 139Notes 141References 1416 Operant Learning II: Positive and Negative Reinforcement 143Positive Reinforcement 143Positive Reinforcement in the Lab 144Negative Reinforcement 146Negative Reinforcement – Escape (SRE−) 146Negative Reinforcement – Escape (SRE−) in the Lab 148Negative Reinforcement – Avoidance (SRA−) 148Negative Reinforcement – Avoidance (SRA−) in the Lab 150Extra Box 1: What Is the Consequence in SRA−? 150Reading Quiz 1 152Positive or Negative Reinforcement: Is There Really a Difference? 153Reason 1: Heuristics 153Reason 2: Loss Aversion 154Reason 3: Preference for Positive Reinforcement 155Using Reinforcement to Positively Influence Behavior 155Reinforcement in the Workplace 156Three Objections to Reinforcement 157Objection 1: Intrinsic Motivation 157Objection 2: Performance-Inhibiting Properties of Reinforcement 158Creativity 159Choking Under Pressure 159Objection 3: Cheating 160Reading Quiz 2 161Theories of Reinforcement 161The Response Strengthening Theory of Reinforcement 162The Information Theory of Reinforcement 163Evaluating the Theories 164Reading Quiz 3 164Summary 164Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 165References 1657 Extinction and Differential Reinforcement 169Operant Extinction Following Positive Reinforcement 170Operant Extinction Following Negative Reinforcement (Escape Extinction) 171How Quickly Will Operant Extinction Work? 174Rate of Reinforcement Prior to Extinction 174Motivation 175Spontaneous Recovery of Operant Behavior 175Reading Quiz 1 176Extra Box 1: How Extinction Informs Theories of Reinforcement 177Other Effects of Extinction 179Extinction-Induced Emotional Behavior 179Extinction Burst 179Extinction-Induced Variability 180Extinction-Induced Resurgence 181We Tried It at Home 183Reading Quiz 2 183Using Extinction to Positively Influence Behavior 184Functional Analysis of Behavior 184Functional Analysis of Self-Injurious Behavior 186Differential Reinforcement 187Differential Reinforcement of Problem Behavior 188How to Effectively Use Differential Reinforcement 189Differentially Reinforcing Response Topography 190Differentially Reinforcing Rate of Operant Behavior 192Reading Quiz 3 192Summary 193Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 194Note 194References 1958 Primary and Conditioned Reinforcement and Shaping 200Primary Reinforcers 201Conditioned Reinforcers 202Pavlovian Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers 202Verbal Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers 203The Token Economy 204Reading Quiz 1 206Arranging Effective Conditioned Reinforcers 207Extra Box 1: Conditioned Reinforcers in Zoos 210Clicker Training with Humans 211Reading Quiz 2 212Shaping 213Extra Box 2: Shaping Animal Behavior on the Farm 214Shaping Human Behavior 215Shaping and Flow 215Principles of Effective Shaping 217Try It at Home: The Shaping Game 220Reading Quiz 3 221Automating Shaping: Percentile Schedules of Reinforcement 221Summary 224Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 225Notes 226References 2269 Motivation, Reinforcer Efficacy, and Habit Formation 229Everyday Concepts of Motivation 230From Motivation to Motivating Operations 232Two Kinds of Motivating Operations 232Examples of EOs 233Examples of AOs 234Motivating Operations Require Response-Reinforcer Contingency Learning 234The Therapeutic Utility of Motivating Operations 235Extra Box 1: The Cost of Mentalistic Reasoning 236Reading Quiz 1 237Identifying Effective Reinforcers: The “Liking” Strategy 237Reinforcer Surveys 238Stimulus Preference Assessments 239Extra Box 2: Avoiding Circularity – The Premack Principle 241Reading Quiz 2 243Measuring Reinforcer Efficacy 243Dimensions of Effective Reinforcers 245Contingency 245Reinforcer Size 245Reinforcer Quality 246Reinforcer Immediacy 246Summary 248Habit Formation 248Habits – What Are They and How Are They Formed 248Our Everyday Habits 250Replacing Bad Habits with Good Ones 250Reading Quiz 3 252Summary 252Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 253Notes 254References 25410 Punishment 258Punishers and Punishment 259Two Kinds of Punishment – Both Decrease Behavior 261Positive Punishment 262Negative Punishment 263Reading Quiz 1 264When Should We Punish? 264Extra Box 1: Punishment Is the Norm – Using It Effectively Is Humane 265Six Characteristics of Effective Punishment Interventions 2661. Focus on Reinforcement First 2672. Combine Punishment with Extinction and/or Differential Reinforcement 2673. Deliver Punishers Immediately 2684. Deliver Punishment Contingently 2695. Punish Every Time 2696. Use a Punisher in the Goldilocks Zone 270Reading Quiz 2 271Primary and Conditioned Punishment 272Arranging Effective Conditioned Punishers 273Some Commonly Used Punishers 274Time-Out from Positive Reinforcement 274Response-Cost Punishment 276The Watchful Eye of the Punisher 277The Role of Reinforcement in the Act of Punishing 279Reading Quiz 3 280Summary 281Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 282Note 283References 28311 Complex Contingencies of Reinforcement 289Schedules of Reinforcement 290Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement 291Fixed-Ratio Schedules 292Variable-Ratio Schedules 295The Behavioral Economics of Ratio Schedules 297The Underappreciated VR Schedule 298Reading Quiz 1 301Interval Schedules of Reinforcement 302Fixed-Interval Schedules 302Variable-Interval Schedules 304Putting it All Together 306Reading Quiz 2 307Why Study Schedules of Reinforcement? 308Extra Box 1: Contingency Management 309Schedule Thinning 310Scheduling Reinforcers to Enhance Human Performance and Happiness 312Reading Quiz 3 313Summary 313Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Tables 11.1–11.4 314Notes 315References 31612 Antecedent Stimulus Control 321Phylogenetic and Pavlovian Stimulus Control 322Discriminated Operant Behavior 322The Discriminative Stimulus (SD) 324The SΔ 325The SDp 325The Three-term Contingency 327Reading Quiz 1 327Discriminative Stimuli and Establishing Operations 329Discrimination Training 330Effective Methods of Discrimination Training 330Using Discrimination Training to Positively Influence Behavior 331Extra Box 1: Direct Instruction of Reading Skills 333Generalization 334Using Discrimination Training to Improve Stimulus Control 336Promoting Generalization and Maintenance 337Tactic 1: Teach Behaviors That Will Contact Natural Contingencies of Reinforcement 338Tactic 2: Train Diversely 338Tactic 3: Arrange Antecedent Stimuli That Will Cue Generalization 338Reading Quiz 2 339Stimulus-Response Chains 340Teaching Stimulus-Response Chains 341Prompting and Fading 342Extra Box 2: Consciousness 343Reading Quiz 3 345Summary 345Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 346References 34713 Choice 351What Is Choice? 352Four Variables Affecting Choice 352Reinforcement vs. No Consequence 353Reinforcer Size/Quality 353Effort 354Reinforcer Delay 355Summary 355Reading Quiz 1 356The Rich Uncle Joe Experiment 356Choosing between Uncertain Outcomes 357Herrnstein’s Matching Equation 358More Uncertainty 358Research Support for Herrnstein’s Equation 361Reading Quiz 2 362Extra Box 1: The Matching Law, Terrorism, and White Nationalism 364Substitutes 366Extra Box 2: What Substitutes for Drug Reinforcers? 367Using the Matching Law to Positively Influence Behavior 368The Matching Law and Attention 370Summary 371Reading Quiz 3 372Impulsivity and Self-Control 372Predicting Impulsive Choice 373Predicting Preference Reversals 376Influencing Impulsive Choice 377Commitment Strategies 378Delay-Exposure Training 380Reading Quiz 4 380Summary 380Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Table 13.3 381Notes 385References 38514 Verbal Behavior, Rule-Following, and Clinical Behavior Analysis 390Behavioral Approaches to Language 391Skinner’s Functional Taxonomy of Speaker Behavior 391Echoic 392Mand 392Tact 392Intraverbal 393Training Verbal Operants 393Reading Quiz 1 394The Behavior of the Listener 395Expanding the Verbal Repertoire 398Verbal Behavior and Emotions 399Reading Quiz 2 400Rules and Rule-Governed Behavior 401Why Follow the Rules? 402Pliance 402Tracking 403Persistently Following Incorrect Rules 404Are We Hopelessly Compliant? 405The Dark Side of Tracking 406Reading Quiz 3 407Breaking the Rules in Clinical Psychology 408Extra Box 1: If Thoughts Are Important, Prepare to Suffer 410The “Acceptance” in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy 411The “Commitment” in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy 412Does ACT Work? 413Further Reading 413Reading Quiz 4 413Summary 414Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 415Notes 417References 417Appendix 421Glossary 423Author Index 432Subject Index 437