History of Mali’s National Drink

Ute Röschenthaler, Ph.D. (1991), Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, is extracurricular professor of anthropology and PI in the project “Cultural Entrepreneurship and Digital Transformation in Africa and Asia”. She is the author of African Agency in China’s Tea Trade: Commercial Networks, Brand Creation and Intellectual Property (Brill 2022).

• Preface and AcknowledgementsList of FiguresIntroduction: Following the Drink1 Tea as a Subject of Study2 Central Issues of This Study2.1 The Choice of the Beverage and Its Social Meanings2.2 Mobility and Unity2.3 The Teascape and the Diffusion of Tea in the Context of Trade3 Research Methodology4 Organisation of the Book1 The History of Tea in Mali1 The History of Bamako’s Tea Market2 Tea in Timbuktu in the Early Nineteenth Century3 The Availability of Tea during French Colonial Time (1883–1960)4 The Postcolonial Period (1960–1991) and Mali’s Tea Plantation4.1 The Creation of the State-owned Tea Plantation in Farako4.2 The SOMIEX (1962–1991) and the Government’s Attempts to Control Imports4.3 Mali’s Tea Plantation Created an Awareness of Tea5 The Tea Market after the 1991 Reforms5.1 The Distribution Network of Tea Importers5.2 Types of Green Tea on the Malian Market6 Conclusion: Mali, a Centre of Tea Distribution2 The Journey of Tea from China via Britain and Morocco to the Western Sahel1 China’s Tea Production for Export2 When Tea Met Coffee: Historical Coincidences2.1 The Coffee Frontier2.2 First Reports about Tea, the Portuguese Traders in Macau and Competition with Dutch and British Merchants2.3 The Introduction of Green Tea to the English Court by Catherine of Braganza3 The Rise of Tea in Morocco3.1 The Arrival of Tea in the Sultan’s Palace3.2 The Creation of Essaouira and the Sultan’s Traders3.3 The Afriat Family: Tujar as-Sultan and Leading Tea Traders4 The Caravan Trade from Wad Noun to Timbuktu4.1 The Trade Route across the Sahara from Wad Noun to Timbuktu4.2 Trade Networks across the Sahara and the Financing of Caravans5 Tea in Morocco and the Sahara in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries5.1 The Dissemination of Tea in Moroccan Society5.2 British Competition in Tea Cultivation and Failed Attempts at Selling Black Tea in Morocco5.3 Tea as a Medium of Political Persuasion, European Conquest and Colonial Intervention in Morocco and the Sahara5.4 Tea during French Administration in Morocco5.5 Tea in Northern Morocco in the Twentieth Century: Direct Imports from China6 Conclusion: The Influence of Trade Routes and Politics on the Taste for Tea3 The Tea Ritual, Its Spatiality and Complexity1 Drinking Tea in China, Britain, and Morocco1.1 Chinese Tea Drinking Rituals1.2 Tea Rituals in Britain1.3 The Moroccan Tea Ritual2 The Tea Ritual and Its Associated Equipment in the Sahara and in Mali2.1 The Tea Ritual of Nineteenth-Century Saharan Traders, Chiefs, and Nobles2.2 Tea for the Caravan2.3 The Tea Ritual in Nineteenth-Century Northern Mali2.4 Functionaries and Elders Drinking Tea in Mali ( from the 1960s Onwards)2.5 The Grins: Groups of Friends Taking Tea ( from the Mid-1980s Onwards)3 The Ingredients of the Beverage3.1 The Types of Tea Leaves Available3.2 Water3.3 Sugar3.4 Milk3.5 Herbs, Essential Oils, and Spices3.6 Tea and Snacks4 Spatiality, Enchantment, and Temporality of Tea Consumption4.1 The Topography of Tea Consumption4.2 The Tea Ritual’s Enchantment4.3 The Preparation, the Froth, and the Sensuality of Tea4.4 The Duration of the Tea Ritual4.5 The Master of Ceremonies and Social Hierarchy5 Conclusion: Continuity, Complexity and Change in the Tea Ritual4 Malian Tea Equipment: History and Provenance1 The Tea Equipment1.1 The Teapots L1.2 Bowls, Cups and Glasses1.3 The Rise of the Tea Glasses1.4 Metal Crafts1.5 Metal Trays and Tea Sets1.6 Stoves, Water Heaters and Samovars2 Tea Sets from England and China: Models for the Moroccan (and Malian) Tea Equipment?2.1 The British and Chinese Precursors of Moroccan Tea Sets3 Genealogies and the Socio-Economic Importance of the Tea Equipment3.1 Genealogies and Modifications of the Tea Equipment3.2 Industries Emerging for the Production of Tea Equipment3.3 The Tea Equipment as a Unit and Signifier of Social Status4 Intersections of Tea Knowledge Transfer, Equipment, and Vocabulary4.1 Pathways of Knowledge Transfer4.2 The Dissemination of Tea Drinking in Mali4.3 Knowledge Transfer and the Vocabulary of Tea Things5 Conclusion: The Dissemination of Tea Culture5 Ambivalent Meanings Attributed to Tea1 From Medicine to a Luxury and a Drink for the People2 Songs and Poems Mirroring Social Concerns and Tea’s Ambivalent Meanings2.1 Poems and Proverbs Inspired by the Tea Equipment2.2 Tea, Sex, and Women3 Tea as a Mirror of the Social Condition: Politics and Religion, Critics and Advocates3.1 Tea as a Mirror of the Social Condition in Mali3.2 The Compatibility of Green Tea Consumption with Work3.3 Tea, Grins, and Youth Unemployment3.4 The Politicisation of Tea in Mali3.5 Tea as Part of the Gift Economy4 The Social Impact of Tea, Its National Importance, and the Items It Replaced4.1 Tea as a Luxury or a Staple and the Nutrition Replacement Argument4.2 Tea as a National Drink and Symbol of Identity5 Conclusion: Tea as a National Symbol despite Criticism and Foreign OriginConclusion: Tea, Mali’s National Drink1 Diffusion, Globalisation, Trickle Down and Moving Up or On?2 Complexity and Unity3 Cultural Practices, ‘Drinkways’ and the Teascape4 Complex Meanings of Green Tea and Tea Knowledge Transfer5 Green Tea Remains the Dominant Drink Despite the Market Economy and AdvertisingReferencesIndex 258