Hazards and Treatment of Wastewater Contaminants

DIPIKA JASPAL, PHD, served as a Professor and Researcher in the Department of Applied Science, Symbiosis Institute of Technology, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, Maharashtra, India. Dr. Jaspal has more than 19 years of teaching and research experience.ARTI MALVIYA, PHD, has over 14 years of professional experience in research and teaching. Currently, Dr. Malviya is working as a Professor in one of the most reputed colleges of India, Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.

• Preface xv1 Introduction 11.1 Water Pollution: A Global Concern – Facts and Figures 21.1.1 Sustainable Development Goals 21.1.2 Climate Change and Water Stress 31.1.3 Wastewater and Its Types 51.1.3.1 Storm Water/Surface Runoff 61.1.3.2 Domestic or Municipal Wastewater 61.1.3.3 Agricultural Wastewater 71.1.3.4 Industrial Wastewater 71.2 Wastewater Characteristics 81.2.1 Color 81.2.2 Odor 81.2.3 Turbidity 91.2.4 Nutrients 101.2.5 Surfactants 101.3 Hazards of Wastewater and the Need for Treatment 111.3.1 Aquatic Ecosystem 111.3.2 Humans 111.4 Need to Treat Wastewater 121.5 Scope and Objectives of the Book 12References 132 Overview of Contaminants 172.1 Contaminants 172.2 Harm Posed by Contaminants 182.3 Sewage Wastewater 192.4 Nonsewage Wastewater 202.4.1 Industrial Contaminants 202.4.2 Agricultural Runoffs 212.4.3 Oil Spill 222.4.4 Radioactive Contaminants 232.4.5 Microbial Contaminants 252.4.6 Emerging Contaminants 252.4.6.1 Microplastics 262.4.6.2 Surfactants 272.4.6.3 Pharmaceuticals 272.5 Detecting Contaminants 282.5.1 Physical Methods 282.5.2 Chemical Methods 292.5.3 Biological Methods 292.5.4 Electrochemical Methods 292.5.5 Advanced Analytical Methods 292.6 Removal of Wastewater Contaminants 292.7 Incidents of Contamination: Case Studies 302.7.1 Flint, Michigan Water Crisis (2014) 302.7.2 Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico (2010) 302.7.3 West Virginia Chemical Spill – Charleston (2014) 302.7.4 Contamination of the River Ganga in India 312.7.5 Minamata Bay Disaster (1932–1968) 312.8 Successful Elimination of Contaminants 312.8.1 Tuas Water Reclamation Plant (Singapore) 312.8.2 Wastewater Reclamation (Taiwan) 322.8.3 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) (Japan) 322.8.4 Constructed Wetlands (Sweden) 322.8.5 Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment (Saudi Arabia) 332.9 Important Considerations 332.9.1 Education and Public Awareness 332.9.2 Prevention of Pollution at Source and Best Practices 332.9.3 Wastewater Management 342.9.4 Use of Technology 342.9.5 Research and Development 342.9.6 Polluted Water Body Restoration 342.9.7 Policies and Collaboration 352.10 Challenges 36References 363 Sewage Wastewater: Sources, Characteristics, and Treatment 433.1 Characteristics of Sewage Wastewater 453.1.1 Sewage Physical Characteristics 453.1.2 Chemical Features of Sewage 463.1.3 Biological Features of Sewage 483.2 Treatment of Sewage Wastewater 493.2.1 Preliminary Treatment 503.2.1.1 Screening 503.2.1.2 Grit Chamber 513.2.1.3 Detritus Tank 513.2.1.4 Skimming Tanks 513.2.2 Primary Treatment of Sewage Wastewater 523.2.2.1 Sedimentation 523.2.2.2 Sedimentation with Coagulation 533.2.3 Secondary Treatment of Sewage Wastewater 543.2.3.1 Aerobic Biological Treatment 543.2.3.2 Anaerobic Treatment Method 623.2.3.3 Other Biological Methods 623.2.4 Tertiary Treatment of Sewage Wastewater 673.3 Case Studies 733.3.1 Sewage Treatment Plant: A Case Study of the Delawas District, Jaipur, India 733.3.2 Sewage Treatment Plant: A Case Study of the Okhla District, New Delhi, India 74References 744 Industrial Contaminants 774.1 Industrial Wastewater 774.2 Wastewater Contaminants from Different Industries 784.2.1 Mining Industry 784.2.2 Agricultural Industry 784.2.3 Iron and Steel Industry 794.2.4 Nuclear Industry 794.2.5 Pulp, Paper, and Textile Industry 794.2.6 Food Industry 804.2.7 Organic Chemicals Industry 814.2.8 Recreation Industry 824.3 Categories of Industrial Contaminants 824.4 Monitoring and Detection of Industrial Contaminants 834.5 Transport and Fate of Contaminants in the Environment 844.5.1 Fate of the Contaminants 854.6 Toxicity of Industrial Wastewater 864.6.1 Impact on Waterbodies 864.6.2 Impact on Soil and Groundwater 874.6.3 Impact on Human Health 874.6.4 Impact on Biodiversity and Ecosystem 874.6.5 Impact of Some Specific Contaminants 874.7 Treatment Technologies 884.7.1 Adsorption 894.7.2 Membrane Separation and Technologies 894.7.3 Electro-technologies 914.7.4 Advanced Oxidation Processes 914.7.5 Integrated Techniques 914.7.6 Constructed Wetlands and Integrated Wetlands 934.8 Case Studies of Industrial Contamination of Water Bodies 954.8.1 Groundwater Pollution in Southeast Vietnam 954.8.2 The Elk River Chemical Spill, West Virginia 954.8.3 Minamata Disease (Kumamoto Prefecture) 964.8.4 Kala Shah Kaku Industrial Complex, Pakistan 964.9 Industry Best Practices 964.9.1 Zero Liquid Discharge 974.9.2 Advanced Treatment Technologies for Wastewater 974.9.3 Adoption of Green Alternatives 974.9.4 Regulatory Compliance 984.9.5 Industrial Wastes and Wastewater Through the Circular Economy 984.10 Challenges and Research Directions 99References 995 Heavy Metals in Wastewater – Toxicity Assessment and Remediation 1135.1 Sources of Heavy Metal Pollution 1145.1.1 Point Sources 1145.1.2 Nonpoint or Diffuse Sources 1145.2 Toxicity Assessment 1165.2.1 Effect on Aquatic Organisms 1175.2.2 Effects on Plants 1185.2.3 Effect on Human Health 1185.3 Treatment Methods 1235.4 Novel Methods for Aqueous Heavy Metal Remediation 1255.4.1 Adsorption by Novel Adsorbents 1255.4.2 Phytoremediation 1255.4.3 Photocatalysis 1285.4.4 Electrochemical Method 1325.4.5 Nanotechnology for Metal Removal 1335.5 Permissible Limits of Heavy Metals in Water Bodies 1375.6 Case Studies 1405.6.1 Kutubdia Channel in Bangladesh: Contamination of Water and Sediments by Metals 1405.6.2 Heavy Metal Contamination of River Cauvery, Tamil Nadu, India 141References 1426 Dye Wastewater Characteristics and Treatment 1536.1 Classification of Dyes 1566.2 Toxicity Assessment of Dyes 1616.2.1 Toxicity in the Aqueous Environment 1626.2.2 Toxicity Effects on the Living Organisms 1636.3 Treatment of Dye Wastewater 1656.3.1 Physical Treatment 1656.3.2 Chemical Treatment 1666.3.2.1 Ozonation 1686.3.2.2 Wet Air Oxidation 1696.3.2.3 Fenton Process 1706.3.2.4 Photodegradation 1706.3.3 Biological Treatment 1716.3.4 Novel/Hybrid Treatment Methods 1756.4 Legislative Guidelines for Dye-loaded Wastewater 1806.5 Case Studies 1816.5.1 Textile Wastewater Treatment Plant – Arequipa, Peru 1816.5.2 Efficiency Analysis of Textile Wastewater Treatment Plant of Foshan, China 183References 1847 Contamination by Oil Spills 1917.1 Characteristics of Oils 1917.2 Important Oil Properties 1927.3 Oil Behavior in the Aquatic Environment 1937.4 Impacts of Oil Spills 1957.4.1 Impacts on the Environment 1967.4.1.1 Marine Ecosystems 1967.4.1.2 Coastal Ecosystems 1967.4.1.3 Contamination of Water Bodies 1977.4.2 Impacts on Humans 1977.4.3 Economic Impacts 1977.5 Detection of Oil Spills and Monitoring 1987.5.1 Remote Sensing 1987.5.2 Machine Learning and Deep Learning 1997.5.3 Laser Fluorosensors 2007.5.4 Ground Penetrating Radars (GPR) 2007.5.5 Recent Techniques 2007.6 Technologies and Materials for Oil Spill Cleanup 2007.6.1 Some Important Studies 2017.6.2 Innovative Techniques 2017.6.3 Integration of Methods 2027.6.4 Materials for Oil Spill Cleanup 2027.6.4.1 Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology 2047.7 Prevention 2057.8 Important Factors in the Cleanup Activity 2067.8.1 Environmental Factors 2067.8.2 Nature of the Oils 2067.8.3 Technological Factors 2077.8.4 Organizational Factors 2077.8.5 Socioeconomic and Political Factors 2077.9 Treatment of Oil Spills 2077.9.1 Use of Skimmers 2077.9.2 Oil-absorbent Pads 2087.9.3 Burning In Situ (Thermal Remediation) 2087.9.4 Sorbents 2097.9.5 Hot Water and High Pressure Washing 2117.9.6 Oil Spill Dispersants 2117.9.7 Oil Boom 2127.9.8 Manual Labor 2137.9.9 Bioremediation 2137.10 Some Major Oil Spill Incidents 2147.10.1 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 2147.10.2 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 2157.10.3 Prestige Oil Spill 2157.10.4 Montara Oil Spill 2157.11 Disposal and Treatment of Wastes Generated 2167.12 Strategies for Prevention and Mitigation 2197.13 Legislation and Role of Authorities in the Cleanup of Oil Spills 2197.13.1 The US Regulations 2207.13.2 The UK Regulations 220References 2218 Pesticide Elimination from Hydro Environment 2318.1 Classification of Pesticides 2328.2 Scenario of Global Pesticide Consumption 2378.3 Toxicity Assessment of Pesticides 2388.4 Treatment of Pesticide Wastewater 2418.4.1 Physical Treatment Methods 2438.4.1.1 Membrane Filtration 2438.4.1.2 Plasma Process 2438.4.1.3 Ultrasonication 2438.4.1.4 Adsorption 2448.4.1.5 Evaporation Beds 2478.4.2 Chemical Treatment Method 2478.4.2.1 Iron-enhanced Sand Filters 2478.4.2.2 Chlorination 2478.4.2.3 Advanced Oxidation Process 2488.4.2.4 Photochemical Degradation 2498.4.2.5 Ozonation 2498.4.2.6 Fenton Process 2508.4.2.7 Electrocoagulation 2508.4.3 Biological Treatment Methods 2528.4.3.1 Pesticide Degradation Using Ligninolytic Fungi 2528.4.3.2 Pesticide Degradation Using Bioaugmented Activated Sludge 2538.4.3.3 Pesticide Degradation Using Microbial Consortium 2538.4.3.4 Pressurized Activated Sludge for Pesticide Elimination 2538.4.3.5 Combined Aerobic and Anaerobic Biological Treatment 2538.4.3.6 Membrane Bioreactor for Pesticide Removal 2548.4.4 Hybrid Technologies 2578.5 Legislative Framework of Pesticides 2598.6 Case Studies 2638.6.1 Removal of Pentachlorophenol from Wastewater 2638.6.2 Pesticide Removal from Secondary Wastewater of Waste Treatment Plant, Tunisia 265References 2669 Radioactive Contaminants 2719.1 Detection of Radioactive Contaminants 2719.1.1 Gamma Ray Spectrometry 2719.1.2 Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC) 2739.1.3 Mass Spectrometry 2739.1.4 Alpha Spectrometry 2759.1.5 Beta Counting 2769.2 Methods of Treatment 2769.2.1 Chemical Precipitation and Coagulation 2779.2.2 Membrane Technique 2799.2.3 Sorption 2809.2.4 Photo-induced/AOP Processes 2819.2.5 Bioremediation 2849.2.6 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) and Ion Exchange 2879.2.7 Evaporative Method 2899.2.8 Integrated Methods 2909.3 Case Studies on Radioactive Contaminants 2939.3.1 Hanford Site, Washington, USA 2939.3.2 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster, Japan 2949.3.3 Mayak Facility and the Techa River, Russia 2959.3.4 Chernobyl Disaster, Soviet Union 2969.4 Technologies and Materials Studied for Radioactive Contaminants 2969.4.1 Novel Technologies 2979.4.2 Materials for Radionuclide Wastewater Remediation 2989.5 Role of Regulatory Authorities 3009.6 Challenges and Future Needs 301References 30210 Microbes as Contaminants 31710.1 Treatment Methods 32010.1.1 Primary Sedimentation 32110.1.2 Coagulation-flocculation 32210.1.3 Filtration 32310.1.4 Conventional Disinfection 32310.1.5 Chlorination 32410.1.6 Ultraviolet (UV) Light 32410.1.7 Ozonation 32510.1.8 Waste Stabilization Ponds 32610.1.9 Constructed Wetlands 32610.1.10 Novel Methods 32810.1.10.1 Carbon Nanotubes 32810.1.10.2 Membrane Bioreactor 32910.1.10.3 Biofilters 33010.1.10.4 Advanced Oxidation Process 332References 33211 Pharmaceutics as Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater: Hazards and Removal Technologies 33911.1 Sources of Pharmaceutical Waste 33911.1.1 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Facilities 34011.1.2 Healthcare Facilities 34011.1.3 Personal Care Products 34011.1.4 Veterinary Institutions 34111.1.5 Wastewater Treatment Plants 34111.1.6 Landfills 34111.1.7 Other Sources 34111.2 Types of Pharmaceutical Waste 34111.3 Toxicity Assessment 34411.4 Treatment Methods 35011.4.1 Physical Treatment Methods 35011.4.1.1 Autoclaving 35011.4.1.2 Precipitation 35011.4.1.3 Ion Exchange 35011.4.1.4 Coagulation 35111.4.1.5 Floatation Process 35111.4.1.6 Solvent Extraction Process 35211.4.1.7 Evaporation 35211.4.2 Physio-chemical Methods 35311.4.2.1 Advanced Oxidation Process 35311.4.2.2 Photocatalytic Degradation 35311.4.2.3 Electrochemical Removal 35411.4.2.4 Ozonation 35411.4.2.5 Adsorption 35511.4.2.6 Metal–Organic Frameworks 35711.4.3 Biological Treatment 35811.4.3.1 Constructed Wetlands 35811.4.3.2 Anaerobic Treatment 35911.4.3.3 Activated Sludge Process 35911.4.4 Novel Technologies 36011.4.4.1 Membrane Separation Technology 36011.4.4.2 Membrane Bioreactor System 36211.5 Legislative Framework of Pharmaceuticals 36311.6 Case Studies 36511.6.1 Sewerage Treatment Plant, Ghana 36511.6.2 Pharmaceutical Wastewater Treatment Using High-rate Algal Pond 366References 36712 Surfactants: Behavior and Remediation Process 38112.1 Sources of Surfactants 38212.2 Types of Surfactants 38312.3 Toxicity Assessment of Surfactants 38512.3.1 Surfactants and the Abiotic Environment 38812.3.2 Surfactants in the Biotic Environment 38912.4 Analytical Techniques for Surfactants 39412.5 Treatment Techniques 39412.5.1 Physical Treatment 39412.5.2 Chemical Treatment 40012.5.3 Biological Treatment 40412.5.4 Integrated Treatment Methods 40712.6 Legislative Framework for Surfactant Discharge 40912.7 Case Studies 41012.7.1 Surfactant-loaded Wastewater – Lion Corporation, Thailand 41012.7.2 River Tigris, Iraq – A Surfactant Loaded Freshwater Source 410References 41113 Fertilizers and Nutrients 41513.1 Fertilizers in Agriculture 41513.1.1 Types of Fertilizers 41713.1.1.1 Inorganic Fertilizers 41713.1.1.2 Organic Fertilizers 41813.1.1.3 Slow-release Fertilizers 41913.1.1.4 Micronutrient Fertilizers 42013.2 Hazards of Fertilizers in Water/Wastewater 42013.2.1 Pathways of Contamination by Fertilizers 42013.2.1.1 Leaching 42013.2.1.2 Surface Runoff 42013.2.1.3 Agricultural Drainage 42113.2.1.4 Acid Rain Due to Deposition in the Atmosphere 42113.2.2 Impact on the Water Quality 42213.2.2.1 Eutrophication 42213.2.2.2 Mechanism of Eutrophication 42313.3 Consequences of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Water 42313.4 Control of Eutrophication and Nutrients in Water 42613.4.1 Regulating Nutrient Inlet in the Water Bodies 42613.4.2 Improving Methods Adopted in Wastewater Treatment Plants 42613.4.3 Management of Agricultural Practices 42613.4.4 Public Contribution 42613.4.5 Regulatory Authorities 42713.4.6 Effluent Diversion 42713.4.7 Phosphate Striping and Buffer Striping 42713.4.8 Treatment Using Constructed Wetlands 42713.4.9 Other Methods 42813.4.10 Ecological Approaches 42813.5 The USEPA for Nutrient Pollution 43013.6 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 43013.7 Policies and Schemes for the Use of Fertilizers 43113.7.1 The EU Nitrates Directive (1991) 43113.7.2 The US Clean Water Act (1972) 43113.7.3 New Soil Health Card Scheme (2015) 43213.8 Case Studies on Fertilizer Contamination 43213.8.1 Dead Zone – Gulf of Mexico 43213.8.2 Punjab – Groundwater Nitrate Pollution 43313.8.3 China – Eutrophication of Lake Water 43313.9 Efforts on Successful Remediation 43413.9.1 Strategies Adopted in Denmark 43413.9.2 Initiatives for Organic Farming in Europe 43513.9.3 Wetland Restoration Techniques 43513.10 Management of Fertilizer Use 43613.11 Technologies and Methods for Nutrient Removal 43613.12 Recent Studies on Nutrient Removal 439References 44214 Microplastics 45314.1 Challenges in the Recycling of Plastics 45414.2 Plastics to Microplastics 45614.3 Toxicity Assessment of MPs 45714.4 Legislation for MP Management 46114.5 Treatment of Microplastic-containing Wastewater 46514.5.1 Primary Treatment 46614.5.2 Secondary Treatment 46614.5.3 Tertiary Treatment 46714.5.4 Newer Treatment Methods 46714.5.4.1 Biomass-based Treatment 46714.5.4.2 Membrane Technology 46914.5.4.3 Advanced Oxidation Process 47114.5.4.4 Electrocoagulation 47214.5.4.5 Photocatalysis 47514.5.4.6 Plasma Technology 47614.5.4.7 Phytoremediation 47714.5.4.8 Biotechnological Methods 47814.6 Case Studies 48114.6.1 MP Removal Efficiency of Wastewater Treatment Plants in Zhengzhou, China 48114.6.2 Groundwater Contamination by MPs 482References 48315 Wastewater Treatment Technologies: Performance and Mechanism 49515.1 Mechanisms of Different Processes 49515.1.1 Adsorption 49515.1.2 Ion Exchange 50315.1.3 Membrane Filtration 50415.1.4 Coagulation 50615.1.5 Advanced Oxidation Processes 50715.1.6 Fenton Process 50815.1.7 Electro-Fenton Process 50815.1.8 Ozone Treatment 50815.1.9 Electrochemical Oxidation 50915.1.10 Photocatalytic Degradation 51115.1.11 Sonochemical Method 51515.1.12 Biologically Assisted Degradation 51615.1.13 Membrane Bioreactor 51815.1.14 Constructed Wetlands 51915.1.15 Phytoremediation 521References 524Conclusions and Recommendations 531Index 535