Handbook of Hydraulic Fracturing

James G. Speight PhD, DSc is a senior fuel and environmental consultant. He is recognized internationally as an expert in the characterization, properties, and processing of conventional fuels, synthetic fuels, and biofuels. He has more than 40 years of experience in the process industries, is the author of numerous books and papers, is the senior editor of three journals, and has won numerous awards and distinctions.

• Preface vii1 Definitions 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Definitions 31.2.1 Petroleum 51.2.2 Oil and Gas from Tight Formations 81.2.3 Opportunity Crudes 131.2.4 High-Acid Crude Oil 141.2.5 Foamy Oil 151.2.6 Heavy Oil 151.2.7 Extra Heavy Oil 161.2.8 Tar Sand Bitumen 161.2.9 Natural Gas 171.2.10 Shale Gas 191.2.11 Coalbed Methane (CBM) 211.2.12 Other Sources of Gas 221.3 Unconventional Oil 23References 232 Reservoirs and Reservoir Fluids 272.1 Introduction 272.2 Sedimentary Rocks 302.2.1 Types 302.2.2 Characteristics 312.3 Reservoir Evaluation 322.3.1 Structural Types 352.3.2 Heterogeneity 362.3.3 Porosity and Permeability 372.4 Tight Formations 402.5 Evaluation of Reservoir Fluids 422.5.1 Sampling Methods 462.5.2 Data Acquisition and QA/QC 49References 513 Oil and Gas Production 553.1 Introduction 553.2 Well Completion and Production 573.2.1 Well Completion 573.2.2 Production Methods 633.2.3 Fracturing Methods 733.3 Bitumen Recovery From Tar Sand Deposits 773.3.1 Mining Methods 783.3.2 Nonmining Methods 793.4 Sand Control 823.4.1 Methods 823.4.2 Guidelines for Process Selection 85References 854 Analysis and Properties of Fluids 914.1 Introduction 914.2 Crude Oil 934.2.1 Sampling 944.2.2 Physical Properties 964.2.3 Thermal Properties 1024.2.4 Fractionation 1084.2.5 Molecular Weight 1104.3 Natural Gas 1124.3.1 Sampling 1144.3.2 Test Methods 115References 1185 Hydraulic Fracturing 1255.1 Introduction 1255.2 Formation Evaluation 1335.2.1 Geologic Evaluation 1375.2.2 Geotechnical Evaluation 1375.2.3 Formation Integrity 1405.2.4 Permeability 1405.2.5 Porosity 1415.2.6 Saturation 1415.2.7 Capillary Pressure 1415.2.8 Logging Analysis 1425.2.9 Mechanical Properties 1435.3 The Fracturing Process 1435.3.1 Equipment 1445.3.2 Fracture Patterns 1485.3.3 Well Development 1505.3.4 Pneumatic Fracturing 1515.4 Fractures 1525.4.1 Fracture Geometry 1555.4.2 Fracture Optimization 1575.5 Fracture Monitoring 1575.5.1 Monitoring 1585.5.2 Aids in Production 160References 1606 Fracturing Fluids 1656.1 Introduction 1656.2 Properties 1696.3 Types of Fluids 1746.3.1 Water-Based Fluids 1756.3.2 Foam-Based Fluids 1786.3.3 Oil-Based Fluids 1786.3.4 Acid-Based Fluids 1796.3.5 Alcohol-Based Fluids 1796.3.6 Emulsion-Based Fluids 1806.3.7 Cryogenic Fluids 1806.4 Additives 1816.4.1 Fluid-Loss Additives 1836.4.2 Clay Stabilizers 1836.4.3 Gel Breakers 1846.4.4 Bactericides/Biocides 1856.4.5 pH Control 1866.4.6 Friction Reducers 1866.4.7 Acid Corrosion Inhibitors 1866.4.8 Viscosity Stabilizers 1876.5 Acidizing 1876.5.1 Formation Type 1886.5.2 Formation Permeability 1896.5.3 Operational Considerations 1896.5.4 Environmental Management 191References 1917 Proppants 1957.1 Introduction 1957.2 Types 1977.2.1 Silica Sand 1977.2.2 Resin-Coated Proppant 1987.2.3 Manufactured Ceramic Materials 1997.2.4 Other Types 2007.3 Properties 2007.3.1 Downhole Scaling 2017.3.2 Embedment 2027.3.3 Flowback 2037.3.4 Fracture Conductivity 2047.3.5 Pack Rearrangement 2057.3.6 Permeability 2057.3.7 Production and Migration of Fines 2067.3.8 Shape, Size, and Concentration 2077.3.9 Stress 2087.4 Proppant Selection and Transport 2097.4.1 Selection 2107.4.2 Transport 212References 2138 Environmental Impact 2178.1 Introduction 2178.2 Geological Disturbance 2218.3 Chemicals Used in Fracturing 2248.4 Environmental Effects 2278.4.1 Air 2308.4.2 Water 2308.4.3 Surface Effects 2348.4.4 Health Effects 2398.4.5 Seismic Effects 2398.5 The Future 2408.5.1 The Process 2408.5.2 The Environment 241References 244Glossary 249Conversion Factors 283Index 285