Guide to European Compressors and their Applications

Peter Simmons is the editor of Guide to European Compressors and their Applications, published by Wiley. Bryan Edward Nesbitt is an automobile designer and currently head of General Motors Corporation International Operations Design, based in Shanghai, China. Nesbitt is also brand chairman for Wuling and Baojun, two automakers with which GM joint ventures.

• 1 Basic principles and compressor types 1 1.1 Gas laws and gas properties 31.1.1 Thermodynamic laws and basic gas laws 31.1.2 Continuity, Bernoulli's equation, momentum and energy equation 41.1.2.1 The continuity equation 41.1.2.2 Bernoulli's equation 41.1.2.3 The momentum equation 51.1.2.4 The energy equation 61.1.3 Pipe flow losses 71.1.3.1 Reynolds Number 71.1.3.2 Head losses in straight pipes 71.1.3.3 Head losses in fittings 81.1.3.4 Hydraulic diameter 81.1.3.5 Total head losses in the pipe system 81.1.4 Perfect and real gases 91.1.5 Diagrams of gas properties 141.1.6 Properties of mixtures 151.1.6.1 Mean molar mass 171.1.6.2 Effective value of the gas constant 171.1.6.3 Mean molar specific heat 171.1.6.4 Isentropic exponent of the mixture 171.1.6.5 Compressibility of the gas mixture 171.1.6.4 Mixture specific volume 181.1.7 Mass / volume relationship 181.1.8 Principles of compression 181.1.9 Polytropic head 191.1.10 Polytropic efficiency 201.1.11 Power consumption 201.2 Basic compressor types 201.2.1 Types of compressors 201.2.1.1 Rotodynamic compressors 201.2.1.2 Positive displacement compressors 201.2.2 Compressor terminology and abbreviations 211.3 General aspects of rotodynamic compressors 311.3.1 Jet compressors 311.3.2 Rotodynamic compressors 321.3.3 Surge and stonewall in rotodynamic compressors 351.4 General aspects of positive displacement compressors 351.4.1 Basic principles 351.4.2 Ideal compression processes 361.4.3 Real compression process 361.4.4 Mechanical work input 361.5 System characteristics and operating points 371.6 Multi-staging and intercooling 382 Centrifugal compressors - construction and design 392.1 General 402.2 Construction 402.2.1 Impellers 402.2.2 Diffusers 412.2.3 Multi-staging 412.2.4 Intercoolers 412.2.5 Compressor casings 422.2.6 Shaft and impeller arrangements 452.2.6.1 "Overhung" design 452.2.6.2 Straight-through design 452.2.6.3 Integrally-geared compressor 462.2.7 Multi-casing / driver configurations 482.2.8 Materials 492.3 Number of compression groups, number of stages per group and power consumption 512.3.1 General 512.3.2 Number of compression groups 512.3.3 Number of impellers per group 552.3.4 Power consumption 562.4 Operating problems 572.4.1 Speed limits 572.4.2 Aerodynamic instability 572.4.3 Rotating stall 583 Axial-flow compressors - construction and design 593.1 General 603.2 Construction 623.2.1 Rotors 623.2.2 Stators 633.2.3 Materials 633.2.4 Variable geometry, multi-staging and blow-off valves 633.3 Number of compression groups, number of stages per group and power consumption 633.3.1 Number of compression groups 643.3.2 Number of stages per group 643.3.3 Power consumption 643.4 Operating problems 643.4.1 Blade vibration 653.4.2 Surging 653.4.3 Rotating stall 654 Reciprocating compressors - construction and design 674.1 General 684.2 Construction 694.2.1 Basic layouts 694.2.2 Piston and piston rod sealing 744.2.3 Valves 754.2.4 Pulsation dampers 754.2.5 Materials 764.3 Number of compression stages, cylinders per stage and cylinder size 774.3.1 Number of compression stages 774.3.2 Compressor speed and piston speed and stroke relationships 814.3.3 Number of cylinders and cylinder size 815 Rotary positive displacement compressors - construction and design 855.1 General 865.2 Screw compressors 865.2.1 Description and operating principle 865.2.2 Performance and liquid injection 875.3 Roots blowers 885.4 Single-lobe compressors 895.5 Sliding vane compressors 895.6 Liquid ring compressors 905.7 Scroll compressors 906 Capacity regulation 936.1 General 946.2 Recycle by-pass control 946.3 Discharge control 956.4 "On/off" control 956.5 Variable speed control 966.6 Suction control 986.7 Clearance pockets 996.8 Step-wise control 996.8.1 General 996.8.2 Three step control 1006.8.3 Five step control 1006.8.4 Multi-cylinder compressors 1006.9 Variable geometry 1007 Protection systems 1037.1 General 1047.2 Liquid carry-over prevention 1047.3 Over-pressure protection 1057.4 Reverse flow protection 1057.5 Anti-surge protection 1067.6 Air dryers 1078 Compressor drivers 1098.1 General 1108.2 Electric motor drives 1108.2.1 Fixed-speed motors 1108.2.1.1 Torque-speed characteristics 1108.2.1.2 Direct-on-line starting 1128.2.1.3 Star-delta starting 1128.2.1.4 Autotransformer starting 1138.2.1.5 Soft starting 1138.2.1.6 PWM variable-speed starting 1138.2.2 Variable speed drives 1148.2.3 Current pulsations with reciprocating compressor electric motor drives 1148.2.3.1 General 1148.2.3.2 Torque and speed variations 1158.2.3.3 Torque and current pulsations 1168.2.3.4 Synchronous motors 1178.3 Steam turbines 1188.4 Gas turbines 1188.5 Turbo-expanders 1218.6 Internal combustion engines 1239 Bearings and seals 1259.1 Bearings 1269.1.1 General 1269.1.2 Bearing and shaft problems in rotodynamic compressors 1269.1.3 Bearing problems in reciprocating compressors 1289.1.4 Bearing lubrication and life 1299.1.4.1 Grease lubrication 1299.1.4.2 Oil lubrication 1309.1.4.3 Bearing life 1319.1.5 Special bearings 1329.2 Process seals 1339.2.1 General 1339.2.2 Conventional seals 1339.2.3 Dry gas seals 1349.2.3.1 Aerodynamic instability 13710 Testing 13910.1 Why test? 14010.2 Types of tests 14010.3 Conformity tests 14010.4 Integrity tests 14010.5 Operating tests 14010.6 Performance tests 14110.7 Recommended tests 14211 Installation 14311.1 General 14411.1.1 Process and maintenance considerations 14411.1.2 Noise and vibration 14511.1.2.1 The need for noise control 14511.1.2.2 Noise from compressors 14511.1.2.3 Noise from drivers and power transmission elements 14511.1.2.4 Vibration 14611.1.2.5 Reciprocating machines 14711.1.3 Compressors for potentially hazardous areas 14711.1.3.1 Area classification 14711.1.3.2 Contribution of compressors to area classification 14711.1.3.3 Equipment restrictions 14711.1.3.4 Legislation 14811.2 Installation configurations 14811.3 Mountings 14911.3.1 "Centre-line" mounting 14911.3.2 Baseplates and foundations 15011.4 Couplings 15111.5 Gearboxes 15411.5.1 General 15411.5.2 Parallel shaft gears 15411.5.3 Planetary type gears 15511.5.4 Gear standards 15611.6 Alignment 15611.7 Main plpe connections 15611.8 Liquid carry-over prevention systems 15711.9 Service air systems 15812 Inspection and maintenance 16112.1 Pre-delivery inspection 16212.1.1 Transportation and storage 16212.2 Maintenance 16212.2.1 General 16212.2.2 Scheduled maintenance 16412.2.3 Opportunistic maintenance 16512.2.4 Condition-based maintenance 16512.2.5 Breakdown maintenance 16512.2.6 Recommended maintenance strategies 16512.2.7 Centrifugal and axial-flow compressors 16512.2.8 Reciprocating compressors 16512.3 Condition monitoring 16612.3.1 General 16612.3.2 Rotodynamic compressors 16712.3.3 Reciprocating compressors 16712.3.4 Rotary type (valve-less) positive displacement compressors 16813 Compressor selection 16913.1 General procedure 17013.2 Compressor type selection 17213.3 Driver selection 17613.3.1 Centrifugal or axial-flow compressors 17613.3.2 Reciprocating compressors 17613.4 Useful reference specifications 17713.4.1 Quality standards 177Why quality standards are needed? 177The content of quality standards 17813.4.2 Available specifications 17813.4.3 Testing standards 17913.4.4 Safety standards 17913.4.5 Dimensional standards 17913.4.6 Material standards 17914 Typical compressor applications 18114.1 General 18214.2 "Oil & Gas" Processes 18214.2.1 Gas treating for removal of CO2, H2S, COS and mercaptans 18214.2.2 Recovery and purification of carbon monoxide for use as a chemical feedstock 18214.2.3 Recovery of elemental sulphur from sour gas 18314.2.4 Cryogenic gas fractionation used to recover C3 or C2 and higher components 18414.2.5 Carbon dioxide recovery and purification by cryogenics 18414.2.6 An improved Claus sulphur recovery unit 18514.3 Dairy products applications 18514.3.1 Chilled water 18514.4 Food processing applications 18715 Gas properties and other data 18915.1 Thermodynamic properties of gases 19115.1.1 General gas and vapour data 19115.1.2 Table of physical constants 19315.1.3 Notes and references to Table of physical constants 19615.2 Pressure/enthalpy charts 20115.2.1 Nitrogen 20115.2.2 Carbon dioxide 20215.2.3 Methane 20315.2.4 Ethane 20415.2.5 Ethylene 20515.2.6 Propane 20615.2.7 Propylene 20715.2.8 Iso-butane 20815.2.9 Normal-butane 20915.2.10 Iso-pentane 21015.2.11 Normal pentane 21115.2.12 Oxygen 21215.3 Units and conversions 21315.3.1 SI, The International System of Units 21315.3.2 Conversion factors for SI units 21415.3.2.1 Plane angle 21415.3.2.2 Length 21415.3.2.3 Area 21415.3.2.4 Volume 21515.3.2.5 Time 21515.3.2.6 Linear velocity 21515.3.2.7 Linear acceleration 21515.3.2.8 Angular velocity 21515.3.2.9 Angular acceleration 21515.3.2.10 Mass 21515.3.2.11 Density 21615.3.2.12 Force 21615.3.2.13 Torque 21615.3.2.14 Pressure, stress 21615.3.2.15 Dynamic viscosity 21615.3.2.16 Kinematic viscosity 21615.3.2.17 Energy 21715.3.2.18 Power 21715.3.2.19 Volume flow 21715.3.2.20 Temperature 21815.3.3 Other conversion factors 21815.3.3.1 Hardness 21815.3.3.2 Material toughness 21915.3.4 Normal quantities and units used within compressor technology 21916 Useful terms translated 22117 Classification guide to manufacturers and suppliers 23317.1 Introduction 23417.2 Names and addresses - manufacturers and suppliers 23517.3 Compressor types - manufacturers and suppliers 24817.4 Ancillary Products and services - manufacturers and suppliers 25817.5 Trade names - manufacturers and suppliers 26118 Reference Index 263Index to Advertisers 272Acknowledgements 272