Green Chemical Synthesis with Microwaves and Ultrasound

Dakeshwar Kumar Verma, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Chemistry at the Govt. Digvijay Autonomous Postgraduate College, Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh, India.Chandrabhan Verma, PhD, is a Researcher in the Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.Paz Otero Fuertes, PhD, is a Senior Researcher in the Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Spain.

• About the Editors xiiiPreface xv1 Ultrasound Irradiation: Fundamental Theory, Electromagnetic Spectrum, Important Properties, and Physical Principles 1Sumit Kumar, Amrutlal Prajapat, Sumit K. Panja, and Madhulata Shukla1.1 Introduction 11.2 Cavitation History 31.2.1 Basics of Cavitation 31.2.2 Types of Cavitation 51.3 Application of Ultrasound Irradiation 71.3.1 Sonoluminescence and Sonophotocatalysis 91.3.2 Industrial Cleaning 101.3.3 Material Processing 111.3.4 Chemical and Biological Reactions 121.4 Conclusion 14Acknowledgments 15References 152 Fundamental Theory of Electromagnetic Spectrum, Dielectric and Magnetic Properties, Molecular Rotation, and the Green Chemistry of Microwave Heating Equipment 21Raghvendra K. Mishra, Akshita Yadav, Vinayak Mishra, Satya N. Mishra, Deepa S. Singh, and Dakeshwar Kumar Verma2.1 Introduction 212.1.1 Historical Background 252.1.2 Green Chemistry Principles for Sustainable System 282.2 Fundamental Concepts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum Theory 352.3 Electrical, Dielectric, and Magnetic Properties in Microwave Irradiation 382.4 Microwave Irradiation Molecular Rotation 412.5 Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Theory in Microwave Irradiation 422.5.1 Electromagnetic Radiations and Microwave 432.5.2 Heating Mechanism of Microwave: Conventional Versus Microwave Heating 442.6 Physical Principles of Microwave Heating and Equipment 462.7 Green Chemistry Through Microwave Heating: Applications and Benefits 532.8 Conclusion 57References 573 Conventional Versus Green Chemical Transformation: MCRs, Solid Phase Reaction, Green Solvents, Microwave, and Ultrasound Irradiation 69Shailendra Yadav, Dheeraj S. Chauhan, and Mumtaz A. Quraishi3.1 Introduction 693.2 A Brief Overview of Green Chemistry 693.2.1 Definition and Historical Background 693.2.2 Significance 703.3 Multicomponent Reactions 713.4 Solid Phase Reactions 733.5 Microwave Induced Synthesis 743.6 Ultrasound Induced Synthesis 753.7 Green Chemicals and Solvents 773.8 Conclusions and Outlook 78References 794 Metal-Catalyzed Reactions Under Microwave and Ultrasound Irradiation 83Suresh Maddila, Immandhi S.S. Anantha, Pamerla Mulralidhar, Nagaraju Kerru, and Sudhakar Chintakula4.1 Ultrasonic Irradiation 834.1.1 Iron-Based Catalysts 864.1.2 Copper-Based Catalysts 894.1.2.1 Dihydropyrimidinones by Cu-Based Catalysts 914.1.2.2 Dihydroquinazolinones by Cu-Based Catalysts 924.1.3 Misalliances Metal-Based Catalysts 944.2 Microwave-Assisted Reactions 974.2.1 Solid Acid and Base Catalysts 984.2.1.1 Condensation Reactions 984.2.1.2 Cyclization Reactions 1004.2.1.3 Multi-component Reactions 1044.2.1.4 Friedel–Crafts Reactions 1064.2.1.5 Reaction Involving Catalysts of Biological Origin 1074.2.1.6 Reduction 1094.2.1.7 Oxidation 1104.2.1.8 Coupling Reactions 1134.2.1.9 Micelliances Reactions 1214.2.1.10 Click Chemistry 1254.3 Conclusion 127Acknowledgments 128References 1285 Microwave- and Ultrasonic-Assisted Coupling Reactions 133Sandeep Yadav, Anirudh P.S. Raman, Kashmiri Lal, Pallavi Jain, and Prashant Singh5.1 Introduction 1335.2 Microwave 1345.2.1 Microwave-Assisted Coupling Reactions 1355.2.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Coupling Reactions 1425.3 Conclusion 150References 1516 Synthesis of Heterocyclic Compounds Under Microwave Irradiation Using Name Reactions 157Sheryn Wong and Anton V. Dolzhenko6.1 Introduction 1576.2 Classical Methods for Heterocyclic Synthesis Under Microwave Irradiation 1586.2.1 Piloty–Robinson Pyrrole Synthesis 1586.2.2 Clauson–Kaas Pyrrole Synthesis 1586.2.3 Paal–Knorr Pyrrole Synthesis 1596.2.4 Paal–Knorr Furan Synthesis 1606.2.5 Paal–Knorr Thiophene Synthesis 1606.2.6 Gewald Reaction 1616.2.7 Fischer Indole Synthesis 1626.2.8 Bischler–Möhlau Indole Synthesis 1626.2.9 Hemetsberger–Knittel Indole Synthesis 1636.2.10 Leimgruber–Batcho Indole Synthesis 1636.2.11 Cadogan–Sundberg Indole Synthesis 1636.2.12 Pechmann Pyrazole Synthesis 1646.2.13 Debus–Radziszewski Reaction 1646.2.14 van Leusen Imidazole Synthesis 1666.2.15 van Leusen Oxazole Synthesis 1666.2.16 Robinson–Gabriel Reaction 1676.2.17 Hantzsch Thiazole Synthesis 1676.2.18 Einhorn–Brunner Reaction 1686.2.19 Pellizzari Reaction 1696.2.20 Huisgen Reaction 1696.2.21 Finnegan Tetrazole Synthesis 1716.2.22 Four-component Ugi-azide Reaction 1726.2.23 Kröhnke Pyridine Synthesis 1726.2.24 Bohlmann–Rahtz Pyridine Synthesis 1736.2.25 Boger Reaction 1746.2.26 Skraup Reaction 1746.2.27 Gould–Jacobs Reaction 1756.2.28 Friedländer Quinoline Synthesis 1766.2.29 Povarov Reaction 1766.3 Conclusion 177Acknowledgments 177References 1777 Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Enzymatic Reactions 185Nafseen Ahmed, Chandan K. Mandal, Varun Rai, Abbul Bashar Khan, and Kamalakanta Behera7.1 Introduction 1857.2 Influence Microwave Radiation on the Stability and Activity of Enzymes 1867.3 Principle of Ultrasonic-Assisted Enzymolysis 1907.4 Applications of Ultrasonic-Assisted Enzymolysis 1927.4.1 Proteins and Other Plant Components Can Be Transformed and Extracted 1927.4.2 Modification of Protein Functionality 1937.4.3 Enhancement of Biological Activity 1947.4.4 Ultrasonic-Assisted Acceleration of Hydrolysis Time 1957.5 Enzymatic Reactions Supported by Ultrasound 1967.5.1 Lipase 1967.5.2 Protease 1967.5.3 Polysaccharide Enzymes 1987.6 Biodiesel Production via Ultrasound-Supported Transesterification 1987.6.1 Homogenous Acid-Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification 1997.6.2 Transesterification with Ultrasound Assistance and Homogenous Base Catalysis 1997.6.3 Heterogeneous Acid-Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification 2017.6.4 Heterogeneous Base-Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification 2057.6.5 Enzyme-Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification 2077.7 Conclusions 207Acknowledgments 209References 2098 Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of Polymers 219Anupama Singh, Sushil K. Sharma, and Shobhana Sharma8.1 Introduction 2198.2 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Polymers 2208.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of Polymers 2238.4 Conclusion 228References 2299 Synthesis of Nanomaterials Under Microwave and Ultrasound Irradiation 235Ahmed A. Mohamed9.1 Introduction 2359.2 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 2369.3 Synthesis of Carbon Dots 2399.4 Synthesis of Metal Oxides 2409.5 Synthesis of Silicon Dioxide 2439.6 Conclusion 243References 24410 Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOF) and Covalent Organic Frameworks (COF) 249Sanjit Gaikwad and Sangil Han10.1 Introduction 24910.2 Principles 25010.2.1 Principles of Microwave Heating 25010.2.2 Principle of Ultrasound-Assisted Techniques 25010.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Techniques 25210.3 MOF Synthesis by Microwave and Ultrasound Method 25210.3.1 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of MOF 25310.3.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of MOFs 25610.4 Factors That Affect MOF Synthesis 25710.4.1 Solvent 25710.4.2 Temperature and pH 25810.5 Application of MOF 26010.6 COF Synthesis by Microwave and Ultrasound Method 26210.6.1 Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of COFs 26210.6.2 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of COF 26210.6.3 Structure of COF (2D and 3D) 26310.7 Factors Affecting the COF Synthesis 26610.8 Applications of COFs 26710.9 Future Predictions 26910.10 Summary 269Acknowledgments 269References 27011 Solid Phase Synthesis Catalyzed by Microwave and Ultrasound Irradiation 283R.M. Abdel Hameed, Amal Amr, Amina Emad, Fatma Yasser, Haneen Abdullah, Mariam Nabil, Nada Hazem, Sara Saad, and Yousef Mohamed11.1 Introduction 28311.2 Wastewater Treatment 28411.3 Biodiesel Production 28911.4 Oxygen Reduction Reaction 29711.5 Alcoholic Fuel Cells 30611.6 Conclusion and Future Plans 313References 31312 Comparative Studies on Thermal, Microwave-Assisted, and Ultrasound-Promoted Preparations 337Tri P. Adhi, Aqsha Aqsha, and Antonius Indarto12.1 Introduction 33712.1.1 Background on Preparative Techniques in Chemistry 33712.1.2 Overview of Thermal, Microwave-Assisted, and Ultrasound-Promoted Preparations 33812.1.3 Significance of Comparative Studies in Enhancing Synthetic Methodologies 34112.1.3.1 Optimization of Conditions 34112.1.3.2 Efficiency Improvement 34212.1.3.3 Methodological Advances 34312.1.3.4 Sustainability and Green Chemistry 34312.2 Fundamentals of Thermal, Microwave-Assisted, and Ultrasound-Assisted Reactions 34512.2.1 Explanation of Thermal Reactions and Their Advantages and Limitations 34512.2.2 Introduction to Microwave-Assisted Reactions and How They Differ from Traditional Method 34612.2.3 Understanding the Principles and Mechanisms of Ultrasound-Promoted Reactions 34712.3 Case Studies in Organic Synthesis 34912.3.1 Examining Examples of Organic Reactions Performed Under Thermal Conditions 34912.3.1.1 Esterification Reaction Under Thermal Conditions 34912.3.1.2 Dehydration of Alcohols 34912.3.1.3 Oxidation of Aldehydes to Carboxylic Acids Using Water 35012.3.2 Case Studies Showcasing the Application of Microwave-Assisted Reactions 35012.3.2.1 Microwave-Assisted C—C Bond Formation 35112.3.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Cyclization 35212.3.2.3 Microwave-Assisted Dehydrogenation Reactions 35312.3.2.4 Microwave-Assisted Organic Synthesis 35312.3.3 Highlighting Successful Instances of Ultrasound-Promoted Organic Synthesis 35312.3.3.1 Ultrasound-Promoted in Organic Synthesis 35412.3.3.2 Ultrasound-Promoted Oxidations 35412.3.3.3 Ultrasound-Promoted Esterification 35412.3.3.4 Ultrasound-Promoted Cyclization 35412.4 Scope and Limitations 35512.4.1 Discussing the Applicability of Each Method to Different Reaction Types 35512.4.2 Identifying the Limitations and Challenges Faced by Each Technique 35712.4.3 Opportunities for Combining Approaches to Overcome Specific Limitations 35812.5 Future Directions and Emerging Trends 35912.5.1 Overview of Recent Advancements and Ongoing Research in Thermal, Microwave, and Ultrasound-Assisted Preparations 35912.5.1.1 Food Processing Technologies 36012.5.1.2 Chemical Routes to Materials: Thermal Oxidation of Graphite for Graphene Preparation 36012.5.1.3 Environmental and Sustainable Applications: Waste to Energy 36112.5.2 Recent Findings in Microwave-Assisted Preparation 36112.5.2.1 Catalyst 36112.5.2.2 Nanotechnology 36212.5.3 Food Processing Technologies 36212.5.4 Ultrasound-Assisted Preparations 36312.5.4.1 Biomedical 36312.5.4.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI) 36312.6 Identification of Potential Areas for Further Exploration and Improvement 36312.6.1 Reaction Mechanisms and Kinetics 36312.6.2 Synergistic Effects 36412.6.3 Green Chemistry and Sustainability 36612.6.4 Scale-Up and Industrial Application 36612.6.5 Catalysis and Selectivity 36712.6.6 In Situ Monitoring and Control 36712.6.7 Mechanistic Studies 36812.6.8 Temperature and Energy Management 36812.6.9 Materials Processing 36912.6.10 Biomedical Applications 37012.7 The Role of Artificial Intelligence and Computational Approaches in Optimizing Preparative Techniques 370References 372Index 381