Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology

ABOUT THE EDITORS Ian Peate is Visiting Professor of Nursing, Visiting Senior Clinical Fellow, Editor-in-Chief of the British Journal of Nursing, and Head of School, School of Health Studies, Gibraltar. Suzanne Evans is Associate Professor and Director of Teaching & Learning, School of Biomedical Sciences & Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, Australia.

• Contributors xviiPreface xxiAcknowledgements xxvAbout the Editors xxviiPrefixes, Suffixes xxixHow to Use Your Textbook xxxixAbout the Companion Website xli1 Basic Scientific Principles of Physiology 1Introduction 2Levels of Organisation 2Characteristics of Life 2Bodily Requirements 3Life at the Chemical Level 4Chemical Reactions and Chemical Bonds 6Acids and Bases 10Representing Chemical Reactions in Written Form: Chemical Equations 11Organic Molecules 12Homeostasis 15Units of Measurement 16Conclusion 18Glossary 18References 19Activities 19Test Your Learning 21Find Out More 212 Cells, Cellular Compartments, Transport Systems, Fluid Movement Between Compartments 23Introduction 24Inside the Cell 24Structure of the Cell Membrane 25Transport of Substances Across the Cell Membrane 26How Do Cells Communicate? 30Fluid Compartments in the Body 31The Composition of Body Fluids 31Electrolyte and Water Balance 32Fluid Movement Between Compartments 34Bulk Transport Across the Cell Membrane 37Conclusion 39Glossary 39References 40Further Reading 40Activities 40Find Out More 42Chemical Symbols 42Conditions 433 Genetics 45Anatomical Map 46Introduction 46Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) 47The DNA Double Helix 48Chromosomes 49From DNA to Proteins 52Summary of Relationship Between DNA, RNA and Protein 55The Transference of Genes 56Inheritance 60Spontaneous Mutation 70Disorders of Chromosomes 70Conclusion 72Glossary 72References 73Further Reading 74Activities 74Conditions 764 Tissue 77Introduction 78Epithelial Tissue 78Connective Tissue 83Membranes 89Muscle Tissue 90Nervous Tissue 91Tissue Repair 92Conclusion 93Glossary 93References 94Activities 945 Embryology 97Introduction 98Final Maturation of the Oocyte and Sperm 98Day One: Fertilisation 100Days 2–5: Pre‐Implantation Development 100Day 6: Implantation 102Week 2: Early Placental Formation 102Week 3–8: Post‐Implantation Embryonic Development 104Late Gestation and Birth: Gestational Weeks 13–40 (Embryonic Weeks 11–38) 108Complications of Pregnancy 111Conclusion 115Glossary 115References 116Further Reading 116Activities 1176 The Muscular System 119Body Map 120Introduction 120Types of Muscle Tissue 120Functions of the Muscular System 121Composition of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 122Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles 122Microanatomy of Skeletal Muscle Fibre 123Skeletal Muscle Contraction and Relaxation 127Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction 130Aerobic Respiration 130Organisation of the Skeletal Muscular System 133The Effects of Ageing 146Conclusion 146Glossary 146References 147Further Reading 147Activities 147Find Out More 149Conditions 1497 The Skeletal System 151Body Map 152Introduction 152Bone as a Tissue 154Other Connective Tissues Closely Associated with the Skeletal System 156Bone Formation 158Bone Growth 159Bone Remodelling 161Bone Fractures 164The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton 165Bone Shapes 166Joints 170Conclusion 174Glossary 175References 176Further Reading 176Activities 177Match Each Bone to its Correct Shape 178Find Out More 179Conditions 1798 The Circulatory System 181Body Map 182Introduction 182Components of Blood 182Properties of Blood 184Plasma 184Functions of Blood 184Formation of Blood Cells 186Red Blood Cells 187White Blood Cells 191Platelets 194Haemostasis 194Coagulation 194Blood Groups 197Blood Vessels 198Blood Pressure 202Lymphatic System 203Lymphatic Organs 207Conclusion 209Glossary 209References 210Further Reading 210Activities 211Find Out More 212Conditions 2129 The Cardiac System 215Body Map 216Introduction 216Size and Location of the Heart 216The Structures of the Heart 217The Blood Supply to the Heart 223Blood Flow Through the Heart 228The Electrical Pathways of the Heart 229The Cardiac Cycle 233Factors Affecting Cardiac Output 236Regulation of Stroke Volume 236Regulation of Heart Rate 237Conclusion 239Glossary 239References 241Further Reading 242Activities 242Conditions 24310 The Digestive System 245Body Map 246Introduction 246The Activity of the Digestive System 246The Organisation of the Digestive System 246The Digestive System Organs 247The Structure of the Digestive System 254The Liver and Production of Bile 264The Gallbladder 266The Large Intestine 266Digestive Tract Hormones 268Nutrition, Chemical Digestion and Metabolism 268Conclusion 272Glossary 273References 275Further Reading 276Activities 276Find Out More 278Test Your Learning 278Conditions 27811 The Renal System 281Body Map 282Introduction 282Renal System 282Functions of the Kidney 290Blood Supply of the Kidney 292Urine Formation 292Selective Reabsorption 293Hormonal Control of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 295Composition of Urine 296Ureters 298Urinary Bladder 299Urethra 300Micturition 301Conclusion 302Glossary 302References 303Further Reading 303Activities 304Conditions 30512 The Respiratory System 307Body Map 308Introduction 308Organisation of the Respiratory System 308The Upper Respiratory Tract 308The Lower Respiratory Tract 310Blood Supply 316Respiration 316Pulmonary Ventilation 316Work of Breathing 319Volumes and Capacities 321Control of Breathing 323External Respiration 324Ventilation and Perfusion 327Transport of Gases 327Acid–Base Balance 330Internal Respiration 330Conclusion 332Glossary 332References 334Further Reading 335Activities 335Conditions 33713 The Reproductive Systems 339Body Map 340Introduction 340The Male Reproductive System 340The Female Reproductive System 348Conclusion 361Glossary 361References 363Further Reading 363Activities 364Find Out More 365Conditions 36614 The Nervous System 367Body Map 368Introduction 368Organisation of the Nervous System 368Sensory Division of the Peripheral Nervous System 368Central Nervous System 369Motor Division of the Peripheral Nervous System 369Neurotransmitters 374Neuroglia 376The Meninges 376Cerebrospinal Fluid 377The Brain 379The Peripheral Nervous System 383The Autonomic Nervous System 389Conclusion 392Glossary 393References 394Further Reading 394Activities 395Find Out More 396Conditions 39615 The Senses 399Introduction 400The Chemical Senses 400The Senses of Equilibrium and Hearing 408The Sense of Sight 419Conclusion 428Glossary 428References 430Further Reading 430Activities 430Conditions 43216 The Endocrine System 433Body Map 434Introduction 434The Endocrine Organs 435Hormones 437The Physiology of the Endocrine Organs 439The Thyroid Gland 443Glossary 456References 457Further Reading 458Activities 458Conditions 46017 The Immune System 461Body Map 462Introduction 462Blood Cell Development 462Organs of the Immune System 463The Lymphatic System 464Lymphoid Tissue 469Types of Immunity 469The Innate Immune System 469Blood Cells 470The Acquired Immune System 477Immunoglobulins (Antibodies) 480Natural Killer Cells 484Primary and Secondary Response to Infection 485Hypersensitivity 487Anaphylaxis 488Immunisations 488Conclusion 488Glossary 489References 490Further Reading 491Activities 491Find Out More 493Conditions 49318 The Skin 495Body Map 496Introduction 496The Structure of Skin 497The Epidermis 498Layers of the Epidermis 499The Dermis 503The Papillary and Reticular Aspects 503The Accessory Skin Structures 504The Functions of the Skin 508Synthesis of Vitamin D 511Conclusion 511Glossary 511References 512Further Reading 513Activities 513Find Out More 515Conditions 515Normal Values 517Answers 521Index 529