Exploring Writing: Paragraphs and Essays

John Langan has taught reading and writing at Atlantic Cape Community College near Atlantic City, New Jersey, for more than twenty-five years. The author of a popular series of college textbooks on both writing and reading, John enjoys the challenge of developing materials that teach skills in an especially clear and lively way. Before teaching, he earned advanced degrees in writing at Rutgers University and in reading at Rowan University. He also spent a year writing fiction that, he says, is now at the back of a drawer waiting to be discovered and acclaimed posthumously. While in school, he supported himself by working as a truck driver, a machinist, a battery assembler, a hospital attendant, and an apple packer. John now lives with his wife, Judith Nadell, near Philadelphia. In addition to his wife and Philly sports teams, his passions include reading and turning on nonreaders to the pleasure and power of books. Through Townsend Press, his educational publishing company, he has developed the nonprofit Townsend Library, a collection of more than a hundred new and classic stories.

• EXPLORING WRITING: PARAGRAPHS AND ESSAYS, 3/eBy John LanganTABLE OF CONTENTSPREFACE xxiiPART ONE: WRITING: SKILLS AND PROCESS 21. An Introduction to Writing 4Point and Support 5An Important Difference between Writing and Talking 5Point and Support in a Paragraph 6Knowing Your Purpose and Audience 8Benefits of Paragraph Writing 9Writing as a Skill 9Writing as a Process of Discovery 11Keeping a Journal 12Tips on Using a Computer 14Ways to Use a Computer at Each Stage of the Writing Process 152. The Writing Process 19Prewriting 20Technique 1: Freewriting 20Technique 2: Questioning 23Technique 3: Making a List 24Technique 4: Clustering 26Technique 5: Preparing a Scratch Outline 27Writing a First Draft 28Writing a First Draft: A Student Model 29Revising 30Revising Content 31Revising Sentences 31Editing 31An Illustration of the Revising and Editing Processes 32Using Peer Review 34Identification 35Scratch Outline 35Comments 35Review Activities 36Taking a Writing Inventory 36 Prewriting 38Outlining 40Revising 46PART TWO: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING 523. The First and Second Steps in Writing 54Step 1: Begin with a Point 55Identifying Common Errors in Topic Sentences 57Understanding the Two Parts of a Topic Sentence 59Selecting a Topic Sentence 61Writing a Topic Sentence I 62Writing a Topic Sentence II 64Step 2: Support the Point with Specific Evidence 65The Point as an “Umbrella” Idea 66Reinforcing Point and Support 68The Importance of Specific Details 71Recognizing Specific Details 71Providing Supporting Evidence 74The Importance of Adequate Details 75Identifying Adequate Supporting Evidence 77Adding Details to Complete a Paragraph 80Writing a Paragraph 814. The Third and Fourth Steps in Writing 84Step 3: Organize and Connect the Specific Evidence 85Common Methods of Organization: Time Order and Emphatic Order 85Transitions 90Other Connecting Words 96Step 4: Write Clear, Error-Free Sentences 99 Revising Sentences 99Editing Sentences 1175. Four Bases for Revising Writing 120 Base 1: Unity 121Understanding Unity 121Checking for Unity 123Base 2: Support 127Understanding Support 127Checking for Support 128Base 3: Coherence 130Understanding Coherence 130Checking for Coherence 132Base 4: Sentence Skills 136Understanding Sentence Skills 136Checking for Sentence Skills 139Evaluating Paragraphs for All Four Bases: Unity, Support, Coherence, and Sentence Skills 140PART THREE: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT 1466. Exemplification 148Paragraphs to Consider 149Developing an Exemplification Paragraph 151Development through Prewriting 151Development through Revising 153Writing an Exemplification Paragraph 1537. Narration 159Paragraphs to Consider 160Developing a Narrative Paragraph 162Development through Prewriting 162Development through Revising 163Writing a Narrative Paragraph 1648. Description 168Paragraphs to Consider 169Developing a Descriptive Paragraph 171Development through Prewriting 171Development through Revising 173Writing a Descriptive Paragraph 1739. Process 179Paragraphs to Consider 180Developing a Process Paragraph 182Development through Prewriting 182Development through Revising 184Writing a Process Paragraph 18410. Cause and Effect 189Paragraphs to Consider 190Developing a Cause-and-Effect Paragraph 191Development through Prewriting 191Development through Revising 193Writing a Cause-and-Effect Paragraph 19311. Comparison or Contrast 198Paragraphs to Consider 199Methods of Development 200One Side at a Time 200Point by Point 201Additional Paragraph to Consider 204Developing a Comparison or Contrast Paragraph 205Development through Prewriting 205Development through Revising 207Writing a Comparison or Contrast Paragraph 20812. Definition 212Paragraphs to Consider 213Developing a Definition Paragraph 215Development through Prewriting 215Development through Revising 217Writing a Definition Paragraph 21713. Division-Classification 222Paragraphs to Consider 223Developing a Division-Classification Paragraph 226Development through Prewriting 226Development through Revising 228Writing a Division-Classification Paragraph 229Argument 233Strategies for Arguments 234Use Tactful, Courteous Language 234Point Out Common Ground 235Acknowledge Differing Viewpoints 235When Appropriate, Grant the Merits of Differing Viewpoints 235Rebut Differing Viewpoints 235Paragraphs to Consider 238Developing an Argument Paragraph 240Development through Prewriting 240Development through Revising 243Writing an Argument Paragraph 244PART FOUR: ESSAY DEVELOPMENT 25215. Introduction to Essay Development 254What Is an Essay? 255Differences Between an Essay and Paragraph 255Structure of the Traditional Essay 255A Model Essay 255Parts of an Essay 256Introductory Paragraph 256Body: Supporting Paragraphs 257Concluding Paragraph 258Diagram of an Essay 259Identifying the Parts of an Essay 260Important Considerations in Essay Development 262Determining Your Point of View 262 Doing a Personal Review 26416.Writing the Essay 265Step 1: Begin with a Point, or Thesis 266 Understanding Thesis Statements 266Writing a Good Thesis I 266Writing a Good Thesis II 268Step 2: Support the Thesis with Specific Evidence 273 The Importance of Specific Details 275The Importance of Adequate Details 276Adding Details to Complete an Essay 276Step 3: Organize and Connect the Specific Evidence 278Common Methods of Organization 278 Transitions 280 Other Connecting Words 283Identifying Transitions and Other Connecting Words 283Step 4: Write Clear, Error-Free Sentences 284Use Active Verbs 285Practice in Revising Sentences 286Revising Essays for All Four Bases: Unity, Support, Coherence, and Sentence Skills 29117. Introductions, Conclusions, and Titles 295 Introductory Paragraph 296Functions of the Introduction 296Common Methods of Introduction 296Concluding Paragraph 299Common Methods of Conclusion 299Identifying Introductions and Conclusions 301Titles 302 Essay Writing Assignments 30418. Patterns of Essay Development 309 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Exemplification 310 Considering Purpose and Audience 310Student Essay to Consider 310Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Exemplification 313 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Narration 314Considering Purpose and Audience 315Student Essay to Consider 315Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Narration 318Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Description 319Considering Purpose and Audience 319Student Essay to Consider 319Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Description 322Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Process 323Considering Purpose and Audience 323Student Essay to Consider 323Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Process 326Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Cause and/or Effect 327Considering Purpose and Audience 327Student Essay to Consider 327Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Cause and/or Effect 329Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Comparison and/or Contrast 330Considering Purpose and Audience 330Student Essay to Consider 331Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Comparison and/or Contrast 333Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Definition 334Considering Purpose and Audience 334Student Essay to Consider 334Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Definition 337Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Division and Classification 341Considering Purpose and Audience 338Student Essay to Consider 338Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Division and Classification 341Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Argument 342Considering Purpose and Audience 342Student Essay to Consider 342Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Argument 34519. Special College Skills 346 Taking Essay Exams 347 Step 1: Anticipate Ten Probable Questions 347Step 2: Prepare and Memorize an Informal Outline Answer for Each Question 348Step 3: Look at the Exam Carefully and Do Several Things 349Step 4: Prepare a Brief, Informal Outline before Writing Your Essay Answer 351Step 5: Write a Clear, Well-Organized Essay 351Writing a Summary 353How to Summarize an Article 354How to Summarize a Book 362Writing a Report 363 Part 1 of a Report: A Summary of the Work 363Part 2 of a Report: Your Reaction to the Work 363Points to Keep in Mind When Writing a Report 364A Model Report 36420. Writing a Research Paper 367 Step 1: Select a Topic That You Can Readily Research 368Researching at a Local Library 368Researching on the Internet 368Step 2: Limit Your Topic and Make the Purpose of Your Paper Clear 368Step 3: Gather Information on Your Limited Topic 369Step 4: Plan Your Paper and Take Notes on Your Limited Topic 370Preparing a Scratch Outline 370Note-Taking 371A Caution about Plagiarism 372Step 5: Write the Paper 375Step 6: Use an Acceptable Format and Method of Documentation 375Format 375Documentation of Sources 375Citation within a Paper 376Citations at the End of a Paper 376Model Entries for a List of "Works Cited" 377Model Paper 379PART FIVE: HANDBOOK OF SENTENCE SKILLS 392 SECTION I: GRAMMAR 39421.Subjects and Verbs 395A Simple Way to Find a Subject 395A Simple Way to Find a Verb 395More about Subjects and Verbs 39622.Sentence Sense 400What is Sentence Sense? 400Turning On Your Sentence Sense 400Summary: Using Sentence Sense 40223.Fragments 403Dependent-Word Fragments 403How to Correct a Depedent-Word Fragment 404-ing and to Fragments 406How to Correct -ing Fragments 407How to Correct to Fragments 407Added-Detail Fragments 409How to Correct Missing-Subject Fragments 409Missing-Subject Fragments 411How to Correct Missing-Subject Fragments 41124.Run-Ons 415What are Run-Ons? 415How to Correct Run-Ons? 416Method 1: Period and a Capital Letter 416Method 2: Comma and a Joining Word 417Method 3: Semicolon 420A Note on Subordination 42225.Regular and Irregular Verbs 426Regular Verbs 426A Brief Review of Regular Verbs 426Nonstandard Forms of Regular Verbs 426Irregular Verbs 428A List of Irregular Verbs 428Nonstandard Forms of Three Common Irregular Verbs 43126.Subject-Verb Agreement 434Words between Subject and Verb 434Verb before Subject 435Compound Subjects 435Indefinite Pronouns 43627.Additional Information about Verbs 439Verb Tense 439Helping Verbs 440Verbals 441Infinitive 441Participle 441Gerund 44128.Pronoun Agreement and Reference 443Pronoun Agreement 443Indefinite Pronouns 444Pronoun Reference 44529.Pronoun Types 448Subject and Object Pronouns 448Subject Pronouns 448Object Pronouns 450Possessive Pronouns 451Demonstrative Pronouns 45230.Adjectives and Adverbs 454Adjectives 454What are Adjectives? 454Using Adjectives to Compare 455Points to Remember about Comparing 455Adverbs 456What are Adverbs? 456A Common Mistake with Adverbs and Adjectives 456Well and Good 45731.Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 459Misplaced Modifiers 459Dangling Modifiers 460SECTION II: MECHANICS 46932.Manuscript Form 47033.Capital Letters 472Main Uses of Capital Letters 472First Word in a Sentence or Direct Quotation 472Names and Titles 472Other Uses of Capital Letters 474Names that Show Family Relationships 474Titles of Persons When Used with Their Names 475Specific School Courses 475Languages 475Geographic Locations 475Historical Periods and Events 475Races, Nations, and Nationalities 476Opening and Closing of a Letter 476Unnecessary Use of Capitals 47634.Numbers and Abbreviations 479Numbers 479Rule 1 479Rule 2 479Rule 3 479Abbreviations 480SECTION III: PUNCTUATION 48435.Apostrophe 485Apostrophe in Contractions 485Apostrophe to Show Ownership or Possession 486Points to Remember 486Apostrophe versus Possessive Pronouns 488Apostrophe verus Simple Plurals 488Apostrophe with Plurals Ending in -s 48936.Quotation Marks 491Quotation Marks to Set Off the Words of a Speaker or Writer 491Indirect Quotations 493Quotation Marks to Set Off Titles of Short Works 494Other Uses of Quotations Marks 49537.Comma 498Six Main Uses of the Comma 4981. Comma between Items in a Series 4982. Comma after Introductory Material 4993. Comma around Words That Interrupt the Flow of Thought 5004. Comma between Complete Thoughts 5015. Comma with Direct Quotations 5026. Comma with Everyday Material 50338.Other Punctuation Marks 506Colon (:) 506Semicolon (;) 506Dash (-) 507Parentheses () 507Hyphen (-) 508SECTION IV: WORD USE 51239.Spelling Improvement 513Step 1: Use the Dictionary 513Step 2: Keep a Personal Spelling List 513Step 3: Master Commonly Confused Words 514Step 4: Learn Key Words in Major Subjects 514Step 5: Study a Basic Word List 514Step 6: Use Electronic Aids 51640.Commonly Confused Words 517Homonyms 517Other Words Frequently Confused 52141.Effective Word Choice 526Slang 526Cliches 527Inflated Words 52942.Editing Tests 53243.ESL Pointers 545Articles with Count and Noncount Nouns 545Using a or an with Nonspecific Singular Count Nouns 546Using the with Specific Nouns 546Omitting Articles 547Using the with Proper Nouns 547Subjects and Verbs 549Avoiding Repeated Subjects 549Including Pronoun Subjects and Linking Verbs 549Including There and Here at the Beginning of Clauses 549Not Using the Progressive Tense of Certain Verbs 550Using Only Transitive Verbs for the Passive Voice 550Using Gerunds and Infinitives after Verbs 550Adjectives 553Following the Order of Adjectives in English 553Using the Present and Past Participles as Adjectives 554Prepositions Used for Time and Place 555PART SIX: READINGS FOR WRITERS 564Introduction to the Readings 566The Format of Each Selection 566How to Read Well: Four General Steps 5671.Concentrate as You Read 5672.Skim Material before You Read It 5673.Read the Selection Straight Through with a Pen in Hand 5684.Work with the Material 568How to Answer the Comprehension Questions: Specific Hints 569Looking Inward 570Shame, Dick Gregory 570The Professor is a Dropout, Beth Johnson 576Superman and Me, Sherman Alexie 585Prison Studies, Malcom X 590Straw into Gold: The Metamorphosis of the Everyday, Sandra Cisneros 595Mother Tongue, Amy Tan 601Observing Others 609What's Wrong with Schools?, Casey Banas 609Propaganda Techniques in Today's Advertising, Ann McClintock 614This is How We Live, Ellen DeGeneres 622Advice to Youth, Mark Twain 629Start By Sitting Together, Randy Pausch 634Inaugural Address, John F. Kennedy 638Neat People vs. Sloppy People, Suzanne Brit (book excerpt) 644Petophila, Jon Katz 649Confronting Problems 655How to Make It in College, Now That You’re Here, Brian O’Keeney 655In Praise of the F Word, Mary Sherry 664Is Sex All That Matters?, Joyce Garity 669Cyberbullying, Thomas J. Billitteri 676Why Profiling Won’t Work, William Raspberry 683Here's to Your Health, Joan Dunayer 688APPENDIX A: Writing a Resume and Cover Letter APPENDIX B: Writing a Formal E-mail 695APPENDIX C: Transition Words and Phrases 696CREDITS 697INDEX 699