Environmental Noise and Management

SELMA KURRA graduated as an architect-engineer with a PhD in environmental acoustics. She was formerly a Professor and had a 30 year career in the engineering departments of the Technical University of Istanbul and Bahcesehir University, giving lectures on environmental noise and building acoustics. She has also conducted noise surveys and research in the USA and Japan, and published papers, book chapters and reports. She participated in the development of the National Regulations regarding noise control and building protection. Professor Kurra is a member of IOA and IIAV and a founding member and former president of the Turkish Acoustical Society where she has been organizing the certification programs. She takes part in several ISO working groups on noise and also the Mirror Committee of the Turkish Standards Institute. She is currently a consultant for dBKES Engineering Ltd in Turkey and Hawk Technologies in UAE.

• About the Author xiiList of Figures xiiiList of Tables xxxvSeries Preface xxxviiAcknowledgments xxxviiiIntroduction xxxix1 Acoustics and Noise Fundamentals 11.1 Acoustics and Brief History: Pioneers and Subsequent Researchers 11.2 Fundamentals of Sound 141.2.1 Sound Waves 231.2.2 Basic Units and Relations 301.3 Sound Sources 511.3.1 Source Types and Sound Powers 521.3.2 Directionality Characteristics of Sources 551.3.3 Wave Propagation and Sound Pressures in Relation to Source Type 591.3.4 Acoustic Fields 721.4 Sound Propagation and Disturbances 741.4.1 Sound Reflection 741.4.2 Sound Scattering (Diffusion) 801.4.3 Sound Absorption 811.4.4 Sound Transmission into Solid Media 841.4.5 Sound Refraction 861.4.6 Sound Diffraction 891.5 Conclusion 91References 92Further Reading 932 Noise 942.1 Definition and Concepts 942.2 Spectral Characteristics of Noise 952.2.1 Filters in Frequency Analysis 972.2.2 Fourier Analysis 982.2.3 Test Signals 1002.2.4 Frequency Weighting Networks 1022.3 Spatial Variation of Noise 1042.3.1 The Distance Effect 1052.3.2 Effect of Air Absorption 1062.3.3 Meteorological Factors 1092.3.4 The Ground Effect 1172.3.5 Effects of Forests and Vegetation 1222.3.6 Effect of Barriers 1242.3.7 Vertical Surfaces 1372.3.8 Total Effect of the Physical Environmental Factors 1372.4 Temporal Variation of Noise 1392.5 Noise Metrics and Descriptors 1412.5.1 Basic Noise Units 1422.5.2 Noise Descriptors 1452.6 Conclusion 148Appendix 2.A 1492.A.1 Barrier Design, Constructions, and Samples 1492.A.2 Overview of the Design Principles of Noise Barriers 1502.A.3 Noise Barriers (Screens) for Other Sources 161References 1643 Environmental Noise Sources 1713.1 Introduction to Environmental Noise Sources 1713.1.1 Outdoor Noise Sources 1723.1.2 Indoor Noise Sources 1723.2 Transportation Noise Sources 1743.2.1 Road Traffic Noise 1753.2.2 Noise from Railways 1933.2.3 Aircraft and Airport Noise 2063.2.4 Waterway Traffic Noise 2183.3 Industrial and Mechanical Noise Sources 2273.3.1 Noise Emission from Single Machines and Installations 2273.3.2 Noise Emission from Industrial Premises 2303.4 Wind Farm Noise 2323.4.1 Emission of Noise from Wind Turbines 2333.4.2 Noise Emission of Wind Farms in Relation to the Environment 2343.5 Construction Noise 2353.5.1 Noise Emissions from Construction Equipment and Operations 2353.5.2 Noise Emission of Construction Sites 2393.6 Entertainment Noise 2433.6.1 Noise Emission from Sound Amplification Systems 2443.6.2 Noise Emission from Entertainment Premises 2453.7 Shooting Noise 2473.7.1 Noise Emission of Firing Weapons 2473.7.2 Noise Emission of Shooting Ranges 2483.8 Other Public Noise Sources 2483.9 Noise Sources in Buildings 2513.9.1 Noise Emission of Individual Sources in Buildings 2523.9.2 Noise Emission of Specific Buildings (e.g. an Industrial Building) 2523.10 Conclusion 253References 2534 Prediction Models for Environmental Noises 2604.1 Development of Acoustic Modeling 2604.1.1 Analytical Models 2614.1.2 Empirical Models 2614.1.3 Numerical Methods with Advanced Computer Techniques 2624.2 Prediction Models for Road Traffic Noise 2644.2.1 Development of the Models 2644.2.2 The NMPB Method 2834.2.3 The Harmonoise Model 2874.2.4 The Cnossos-EU Traffic Noise Model 2884.3 Prediction Models for Railway Noise 2894.3.1 Development of the Models 2894.3.2 Analytical Models 2904.3.3 The RMRS Model 2964.3.4 The Cnossos-EU Railway Noise Model 2994.4 Prediction Models for Aircraft Noise 3004.4.1 Development of the Models 3004.4.2 Guidelines and Simulation Models 3014.4.3 The ECAC Model 3054.4.4 The Cnososs-EU Aircraft Noise Model 3094.5 Prediction Models for Industrial Noise 3104.5.1 Development of the Models 3104.5.2 The ISO 9613 Model 3134.5.3 The ISO 13474 Blast Noise Model 3144.5.4 The Cnossos-EU Industrial Noise Model 3184.6 Prediction Models for Construction Noise 3184.6.1 Development of the Models 3194.6.2 Analytical Models 3194.6.3 Guideline Models 3204.7 Prediction Models for Other Sources 3244.7.1 Waterway Noise Prediction Models 3244.7.2 Shooting Noise Prediction Models 3244.7.3 Wind Turbine Noise Prediction Models 3274.8 Validation of Models 3294.8.1 Comparison of Analytical Models 3294.8.2 Comparison with the Field Measurements 3304.8.3 Validation with the Laboratory Experiments 3304.9 Conclusion 330References 3315 Noise Measurements 3385.1 Brief History of Advances in Noise Measurements 3385.2 Objectives of Noise Measurements 3435.3 Basic Acoustic Measurements 3465.3.1 Measurement of Sound Pressure 3465.3.2 Measurements of Sound Power and Sound Energy 3465.3.3 Measurement of Sound Intensity 3645.4 Measurement Methods and Techniques to Acquire Emission Data for Environmental Noise Sources 3685.4.1 Emission Measurements of Industrial Noise Sources 3685.4.2 Emission Measurements of Transportation Noise Sources 3765.4.3 Emission Measurements of Building Service Equipment 3895.5 Measurement Methods and Techniques to Acquire Immision Data for Environmental Noise Sources (Field Measurements and Analysis) 3915.5.1 Objectives of the Field Measurements 3925.5.2 Observations in the Field 3935.5.3 Measurement Units 3945.5.4 Overview of the Measurement Methods in the Field 3955.5.5 Dealing with Background Noise in the Measurements 4095.5.5.1 Comparison with Noise Limits and Evaluations 4095.5.6 Analyses of the Measured Data 4105.5.7 Reporting the Measurement Results 4135.5.8 Outline of Source-Specific Measurements in the Field 4155.6 Errors in Measurements and Determination of Uncertainty 4315.6.1 Accuracy of the Measurements 4315.6.2 Determination of Uncertainty in Different Standards 4335.7 Occupational Noise Measurements 4395.7.1 Hearing Tests 4395.7.2 Assessment of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss in Workplaces 4425.8 Scale Model Measurements 4445.9 Sound Insulation Measurements 4535.9.1 Basic Knowledge about Sound Transmission 4545.9.2 Laboratory Measurement for Sound Insulation 4575.9.3 Field Measurement for Sound Insulation 4635.9.4 Sound Intensity Technique for Sound Insulation Measurements 4665.9.5 Evaluation of the Measured Sound Insulation 4675.9.6 Measurements of Room Acoustics Parameters 4675.10 Performance Measurements for Noise Abatement Devices 4715.10.1 Measurements of Silencers 4715.10.2 Measurement of Low Noise Surfaces 4725.10.3 Measurements of Barrier Performance 4735.11 Instrumentation for Noise Measurements 4795.11.1 Overview of the Measurement Systems from Past to Present 4795.11.2 Basic Instrumentation for Acoustic and Noise Measurements From the Past to the Present 4815.11.3 Computer-Based Data Acquisition System and Network-Based Data Control 4995.11.4 Purchasing Noise Measurement Equipment 5075.12 Conclusion 508References 5096 Noise Mapping 5246.1 Descriptions and Objectives of Noise Mapping 5246.2 Strategic Noise Maps 5256.3 Noise Mapping Techniques 5266.3.1 Development of Noise Mapping 5266.3.2 Preliminary Determinations for Noise Mapping 5326.3.3 Measurements for Noise Mapping 5386.3.4 Computation Models and Input Parameters for Noise Mapping 5396.3.5 Strategies of emission calculations 5436.3.6 Strategies of immission calculations 5486.3.7 Insertion of Data into the Software 5516.3.8 Performing Operations 5566.3.9 Managing the Outputs 5576.4 Evaluation of Noise Maps 5686.4.1 Identifying Noise Zones 5686.4.2 Rating Noise Impact and Noise Scores 5706.5 Uncertainty and Validity of Noise Maps 5746.5.1 Sources of Uncertainty in Noise Mapping 5756.5.2 Determination of Uncertainty 5776.5.3 Required Accuracy 5816.5.4 Validation of Noise Maps 5816.6 Reporting the Results of Noise Maps 5826.7 Examples of Noise Mapping Practices 5846.7.1 Large-Scale Maps (Regional Maps) 5846.7.2 Small-Scale Maps (Local Maps) 5906.7.3 Noise Mapping for Specific Environmental Noise Sources 5926.7.4 Recent advances in noise mapping 5926.8 Conclusion 598References 5997 Effects of Noise and Noise Control Criteria 6047.1 The Concept of Hearing, Perception, and Loudness 6057.1.1 Anatomy of the Hearing System 6057.1.2 The Hearing Mechanism 6067.2 Effects of Noise on Human Health, Comfort, and Work Performance 6107.2.1 Physical Effects: Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 6127.2.2 Physiological Effects of Noise 6157.2.3 Effects of Noise on Human Performance 6207.2.4 Psychological Effects of Noise 6247.2.5 Adaptation to Noise 6307.3 Noise Impact Studies and Dose-Response Relations 6317.3.1 Annoyance and Related Factors 6317.3.2 Methodology for Noise Impact Studies 6347.3.3 Laboratory Experiments on Annoyance 6627.3.4 Comparison of Field and Laboratory Study Results on Annoyance Responses 6677.3.5 Investigations on the Effects of Noise in Schools 6687.3.6 Noise Impact Assessment in General 6687.4 Community Reactions to Environmental Noise 6687.5 The Soundscape Concept, Objectives, and Implementations 6707.5.1 Sound Quality and Soundscape 6717.5.2 Methodology of Soundscape Research and Design 6757.5.3 Overview of Soundscape Studies 6797.6 The Concept of Noise Pollution 6817.7 Noise Criteria and Limits 6827.7.1 Hearing Risk Criteria 6837.7.2 Environmental Noise Criteria 6857.7.3 Building Acoustics Criteria for Noise Control 6917.7.4 Implementation of Criteria and Noise Control 6997.8 Conclusion 701References 7018 Regulations on Environmental Noise 7158.1 Legislative Terminology 7158.2 Overview of Noise Regulations 7188.2.1 A Survey on Noise Regulation 7208.2.2 Noise Regulations in Different Countries 7218.3 Recommendations by International Organizations 7268.3.1 Legislative Actions in the European Union 7278.3.2 State-of-the-Art practices of Noise Regulations in the EU 7318.3.3 Labeling of Noise Emissions 7318.4 Development of Noise Regulations 7328.4.1 Principles of Better Noise Regulation 7328.4.2 Community Noise Regulation Practices 7338.4.3 Validity of Noise Regulation 7358.4.4 Strengthening Enforcement of Noise Regulation 7368.4.5 Involving Complaints 7368.5 Education and Training for Proficiency in Implementation of Regulations 7388.5.1 Necessity and Objectives of Training 7388.5.2 Organization of Training Programs 7408.5.3 Framework of Efficient Training 7408.5.4 Acoustic Consultancy 7418.6 Regulations on Protection of Buildings Against Noise 7438.6.1 An Example Regulation for the Protection of Buildings Against Noise 7438.7 Conclusion 747References 7489 Environmental Noise Management 7539.1 Concepts of Noise Policy, Strategy, and Management 7539.1.1 Noise Policy and Key Elements 7549.1.2 Noise Management 7589.2 Development of Action Plans 7609.2.1 Interaction of Noise Control Concept and Action Plans 7609.2.2 General Characteristics of Action Plans 7619.2.3 Framework of the Development of an Action Plan 7639.3 Overview of the Action Plans in the EU 7849.3.1 State-of-the-Art Implementations of Action Plans 7849.3.2 International Projects Contributing to Noise Management 7909.4 Quiet Areas and Quiet Façades 7919.4.1 Definition of Noise Limits for Quiet Areas 7919.4.2 Overview of Actions for Quiet Areas in Europe 7939.4.3 Concept of Quiet Façades 7949.5 Economic Impacts of Noise Management 7949.5.1 Risk Valuation 7959.5.2 Economic Impacts of Noise Management in EU Member States 7979.6 Conclusion 798References 798Index 805