Angela M. O'Donnell research explores the significance of peers in the learning process. She says that most people really learn what they want to know from asking other people. The ability to recognize and effectively use peers is especially important to those who feel they have few resources.

• 1 Introducing Educational Psychology and Reflective Teaching xxxiv Educational Psychology 2Theories and Research 6Narrowing the Gap between Theory and Practice 17Reflective Teaching 192 Teachers and Teaching 28The Teaching Life 30What Is Teaching? 31Teacher Development 33Teaching Efficacy 41Planning 48General Approaches to Teaching 573 Cognitive Development 66Brain Development 68Cognitive Development 72Sociocognitive Development 85Language Development 934 Social Development 108Relationships 111Psychosocial Development 119Moral Development 127Social Competence 132Aggression 1365 Behavioral Learning Theory 150Explaining Learning 152Principles of Behavioral Learning Theory 155Reinforcement 156Punishment 160Behavioral Learning Theory and Diverse Learners 164Applied Behavior Analysis 165Behavioral Learning Theory and Special Needs Students 167Managing Behavior 167Influences of Behavioral Learning Theory on Instruction 1776 Managing Learning in Classrooms 186Designing the Physical Environment 188Designing the Social Environment: Norms and Rules 195Managing Day-to-Day Classroom Instruction 206Dealing with Behavior Problems 2117 Cognitive Learning Theory 222Cognitive Theories of Learning 224The Information-Processing Model 225Memory Systems 230Encoding, Retrieval, and Forgetting 238Categorization 2448 Social Learning Theory, Complex Cognition, and Social Constructivism 254Social Learning Theory 256Complex Cognition 262Complex Cognition and Social Constructivism 268Instruction Influenced by Social-Constructivist and Sociocultural Theory 2799 Learning from Peers 290Perspectives on Peer Learning 292Tutoring 304Learning in Heterogeneous Groups 311Collaboration and Technology 314Influences on Effectiveness in Heterogeneous Groups 316Learning from Peers: Practices for Learning 32110 Motivation and Engagement 332Engagement 334Motivation 341Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 342Psychological Needs 348Curiosity, Interest, and Positive Affect 356Engagement-Draining Motivational Deficits 36011 Motivation to Learn 372Motivation Is Rooted in Constructive Thinking 375Self-Efficacy 376Variability in the Classroom 414Intelligence 415Talent 423Extremes of Intelligence 427Differences in Ability and Instruction 429Learners with Special Needs 430Prevalent Student Needs and Challenges 435Mastery Beliefs 381Goals 387Self-Regulation 397Self-Concept 40112 Individual Differences and Special Needs 41213 Issues in Diversity 450Diverse Learners 452English Language Learners 460Multicultural Education: An Overview 461Implementing a Multicultural Approach to Teaching 465Becoming a Teacher of Diverse Children 46914 Assessment for Learning 482Assessments in Everyday Life 484Assessment for Learning: Roles, Goals, and Audiences 486Principles of Assessment and Grading 489Options for Assessment 491Developing and Using Assessments 502Interpreting Classroom Assessments 509Developing a Grading System 513Communicating with Parents 51715 Standardized and Standards-Based Assessments 526The Nature and Development of Standardized Assessment 528Technical Issues in Assessment 534Interpreting Standardized Assessments 547Controversies in Assessment 555Appendix: Looking at the Praxis II™ Principles of Learning and Teaching Assessment and the INTASC Principles 564Glossary 574References 582Name Index 619Subject Index 629

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