Dyslexia

Gavin Reid is an experienced teacher, psychologist and author, and the owner/director of Dr Gavin Reid Education Consultants Ltd. He was formerly Senior Lecturer in the Department of Educational Studies at the University of Edinburgh, UK, and Visiting Professor in the Department of Education and Counseling Psychology and Special Education at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. He is a director of the Red Rose School in Lancashire, UK, and a director of Global Educational Consultancies (GEC) based in Cairo, Egypt. He is chair of the BDA accreditation board, an ambassador for the Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre and a consultant to Institute for Child Education and Psychology Europe (ICEPE). He is the author and editor of 27 books, and has lectured to thousands of parents and professionals in 70 countries. His work has been recognized with several educational awards, many of his books are used as course texts throughout the UK and in other countries, and they have been translated into Italian, French, Polish and Croatian.

• About the Author xivOther Books by Gavin Reid xviForeword xviiiPreface xxiChapter 1 Defining Dyslexia 1Defining Dyslexia 2Purpose of Definitions 4How Should We Define Dyslexia? 5Definitions 7Barriers to Implementing Policy 11Rose Review and Dyslexia 11Education for Learners with Dyslexia 12Different Perspectives and Agenda 14Points for Reflection 15Chapter 2 Explaining Dyslexia: The Range of Research 17Causal Modelling Framework 18Genetic Factors 19Neurobiological Factors 20Visual and Temporal Processing 20Magnocellular Visual System 20Procedural Timing 22Hemispheric Symmetry 23Processing Speed 24Phonological Processing 25Phonological Awareness and Multisensory Programmes 25Morphological Processing 26Glue Ear 27Cognitive Skills 29Metacognition 29Environmental Factors 29Additional Language Learning 30Dyslexia in Different Orthographies 31Self‐disclosure in Adults 33Points for Reflection 34Chapter 3 Assessment: Issues and Considerations 35The Context 35Assessment Aims 37Discrepancy Criteria 37Listening Comprehension 38Componential Model of Reading 38Curriculum Focus 39Why an Assessment? 40How? The Assessment Process 40Effect of an Assessment 42Assessment—Points to Consider 42Some Other Considerations 42Assessment and Inclusion 46The Bilingual Learner 46Points for Reflection 47Chapter 4 Identifying Needs 48The Context 48Information Processing 49Factors That Can Prompt Concern 50Linking Assessment with Intervention and Support 52Key Aspects of an IEP 52The Overlap 53Assessing Performances 53Criteria: Summary 54Whose Responsibility? 57Early Identification 57Models of Identification 59Expert/Intervention—Attainment 59Barriers to Learning 63Whole‐School Involvement 64Points for Reflection 65Chapter 5 Assessment: Approaches and Resources 66The Use of Tests—Points to Ponder 67Assessment and Information Processing 67Cognitive Measures 68Assessment of Processing Skills 69Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP‐2) 70Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests 71Gray Oral Reading Tests (GORT‐5) 71Standardised/Psychometric Criteria 71Standardisation 72Psychometric 73Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT‐II and III) 74Comment 74Phonological Representation and Assessment 75Screening 76Curriculum Assessment 79Miscue Analysis 80Assessment in Context 81Assessment for Learning 82Metacognitive Assessment 83Multiple Intelligences Approaches 85A Components Approach 86Observational Assessment 88Observational Framework 88Systematic Observation 92Summary 93Points for Reflection 94Chapter 6 Reading—Social, Cultural and Government Perspectives 95The Social Context for Literacy 95Literacy and Culture 95Defining Literacy 96Critical Literacy 98Challenging Assumptions 101Government Initiatives 102Literacy Standards and International Comparisons 104PISA Study 106Literacy Initiatives 106Points for Reflection 107Chapter 7 The Acquisition of Literacy 108What is Reading? 108Factors to Consider 109Reading as a Process 110Reading Skills 111Reading Practice 112Developing Reading Skills 112Key Factors 112The Development of Reading 114Stages of Reading Development 117Limitations of the Stage Model of Reading 119Reading and Memory 120Relationship Between Phonology and Orthography 120Dyslexia and Different Orthographies 121Points for Reflection 122Chapter 8 Reading Models and Methods 123Bottom‐Up and Top‐Down Models 123Connectionist Models 125Balance Model of Reading 126Method of Teaching Reading 127Developing Reading Skills 131Teaching Reading—the Debate 132Reading Interventions 135Methodological Issues in Reading Intervention Research 137Factors to Consider in Developing and Using Reading Approaches 138The Literacy Experience 141Framework for Teaching 142Summary 143Points for Reflection 144Chapter 9 The Acquisition of Literacy: Spelling 145Why is Spelling Difficult? 145Systems Involved in Spelling 146Spelling Skills 148Spelling Development 149Spelling Policy 150Spelling Strategies 150Spelling Materials 156Points for Reflection 157Chapter 10 Expressive Writing 158The Importance of Writing 158Relationship Between Writing and Spelling 159Expressive Writing: The Process 160Cognitive Skills Associated with Writing 160Writing in the Curriculum 161Developing Metacognitive Skills through Writing 162Metacognitive Strategies for Writing 163Strategies for Writing 165Motivation and Writing 166Planning 167Pre‐writing Framework 167Developing Ideas 169Handwriting 171Summary 172Points for Reflection 173Chapter 11 Teaching Approaches: Points to Consider 174Overview of Approaches 175The Context 176Assessment and the Curriculum 177The Learner 178Programmes and Approaches—Some Considerations 179Overlearning 182Principles 183Issues 183Points for Reflection 186Chapter 12 Supporting Literacy: Individualised Programmes 188Criteria for Selection 189Orton–Gillingham (OG) 192The Hickey Multisensory Language Course 194Bangor Dyslexia Teaching System 195Letterland 197Reading Recovery 198Toe by Toe: Multisensory Manual for Teachers and Parents 202Alternative Approaches 203Comment—Issues to Consider 209Points for Reflection 210Chapter 13 Supporting Literacy: Approaches and Strategies 211Phonics Instructional Approaches 211Language Experience 215Other Support Approaches 216Phonological Approaches 218High‐Interest Books—History 219Barrington Stoke (www.barringtonstoke.com) 220Start to Finish Books 220Differentiated Texts 221Visual Factors 221Motor Aspects 224Assisted Learning 225Summary 229Points for Reflection 230Chapter 14 Supporting Learning 231Effective Learning 231Key Points about Learning 233The Learning Process 233Realising Potential 236Zone of Proximal Development 237Developing Learning Skills 237Learning Strategies 238Multiple Intelligences 241Study Skills 244Set Goals 246Feedback 246Memory—Some Strategies 247The Role of Self‐esteem 249Creativity and the ‘Gifted’ Dyslexic Student 249Summary 250Points for Reflection 251Chapter 15 Inclusion: Curriculum Access 252The Context 252Responding to the Diverse Needs of Students 254The Challenges 255Meeting Curriculum Objectives 257Index for Inclusion 257Tensions and Contradictions 259Assessment, Need and Accountability 260Removing Barriers to Achievement 261Interventions and Inclusion 261Making the School Inclusive 264Equity 265Principles of Inclusion 266An Inclusive School 268Healthy Schools 268Supporting Inclusion 269Staff Support and Training 270Student Advocacy 272Dyslexia and Self‐advocacy 273Staff Support 274Key Factors 275Points for Reflection 275Chapter 16 Inclusion in Secondary Education: Accessing the Curriculum 276Responsibility 277Features of Secondary Schools 277Differentiation and Curricular Development 280Differentiation and Assessment 281Subject Areas 281Multiple Intelligences in Secondary Schools 294Physical Education 295Staff Development 296Challenges: Key Areas 297Points for Reflection 299Chapter 17 Inclusion: Further and Higher Education and the Workplace 300Further and Higher Education 301The Workplace 313Concluding Comment 315Points for Reflection 316Chapter 18 The Role of Parents 317Parental Concerns 318Parental Support 320Parents’ Challenges 322Parents as Partners 324Points for Reflection 324Chapter 19 Multilingualism: Challenges and Responses 325Background and Context 325Cultural Factors 326Culture‐fair Assessment 330Teaching 331Key Principles 332Metacognitive Awareness/Schema 333Concluding Points 334Points for Reflection 334Chapter 20 The Overlap—Dyslexia: Attention, Coordination, Auditory Processing and Numeracy 335Introduction 335The Overlap Dilemma 336Attention Issues 337Identifying and Defining Attention Difficulties 340Intervention 342ADHD and Creativity 345Coordination, Movement and Handwriting 346Intervention Strategies—15 Tasks to Try 347Handwriting 348Dysgraphia Strategies 349Early Intervention 350Auditory Processing 351Diagnosis and Overlap 351Management of APD 352Intervention 352Difficulty with Numbers 354Reading in Mathematics 356Diagnosing Dyscalculia 356Intervention 357Points for Reflection 359Chapter 21 The Use of Computers and Technology 360Introduction 360Approaches Using New Technology 363Resources—Computer Programs 364British Dyslexia Association New Technologies Committee (BDA NTC) 365Comment 366Points for Reflection 366Chapter 22 Positive Dyslexia 367The Background 367Five Key Factors 368How Dyslexia Affects Children’s Learning 370Metacognition 370Encourage Creativity 371Provide Feedback to Students About Their Own Personal Progress 371Encourage Self‐assessment 371Develop Student Responsibility 372Enhancing Creativity 372Concluding Comment 374Points for Reflection 374Appendix 1 Some Popular Tests for Dyslexia that Can Be Used by Teachers 375Test of Phonological Awareness, Second Edition: Plus (TOPA-2+) (2004) 375Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Second Edition (CTOPP-2) (2013) 375Launch Into Reading Success—Test of Phonological Awareness (1997) 376GORT-5: Gray Oral Reading Tests, Fifth Edition (2012) 376TOWRE-2—Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition (2012) 377WIST (Word Identification and Spelling Test) (2004) 377DIBELS 378Bangor Dyslexia Screening Test 378Dyslexia Screening Test—Junior (DST-J) (2004) 379Dyslexia Screening Test—Secondary (DST-S) (2004) 379Dyslexia Screener (2004) 380Cognitive Profiling System (CoPS) Version 5.1 (2010) 381Special Needs Assessment Profile 381WIAT-II UK for Teachers (2006) 382Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-II) (UK Norms and III US and Canada Norms Only) 382Phonological Assessment Battery Revised (PhAB-2) 383HAST-2 Helen Arkell Spelling Test 383Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT 4) 384Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, Second Edition (WRAML-2) (2003) 384Test of Auditory Processing Skills—3 (TAPS-3) 384Appendix 2 Further Contacts 385International 385North and South America and Canada 385Australia and New Zealand 387Europe 387Middle East 388Asia 389Africa 389Other Websites 390Organisations 391Articles and Reviews About Dyslexia 392Literacy 393References 394Index 437