Digital Electronics

Anil K. Mainiis a senior scientist and Associate Director at Laser Science and Technology Centre, an R&D establishment under Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO), India. He has worked on a wide range of electronics and optoelectronic laser systems. His areas of expertise include Optoelectronic sensor systems, Laser systems, Power electronics, Digital electronics and related technologies. He has eight books to his credit including Satellite Technology: Principles and Applications, Microwaves and Radar, Handbook of Electronics, Electronics and Communication Simplified, Electronics for Competitions, Television Technician’s Course, Electronics Projects for Beginners and Facing the Interview Board for Electronics Professionals. He has also authored about 150 technical articles and papers in national and international magazines and conferences and has two patents (Patent pending) to his credit. He is Life Fellow of Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE) and Life Member of Indian Laser Association

• Preface xxi1 Number Systems 11.1 Analogue Versus Digital 11.2 Introduction to Number Systems 21.3 Decimal Number System 21.4 Binary Number System 31.4.1 Advantages 31.5 Octal Number System 41.6 Hexadecimal Number System 41.7 Number Systems – Some Common Terms 41.7.1 Binary Number System 41.7.2 Decimal Number System 51.7.3 Octal Number System 51.7.4 Hexadecimal Number System 51.8 Number Representation in Binary 51.8.1 Sign-Bit Magnitude 51.8.2 1’s Complement 61.8.3 2’s Complement 61.9 Finding the Decimal Equivalent 61.9.1 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion 61.9.2 Octal-to-Decimal Conversion 61.9.3 Hexadecimal-to-Decimal Conversion 71.10 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion 71.11 Decimal-to-Octal Conversion 81.12 Decimal-to-Hexadecimal Conversion 91.13 Binary–Octal and Octal–Binary Conversions 91.14 Hex–Binary and Binary–Hex Conversions 101.15 Hex–Octal and Octal–Hex Conversions 101.16 The Four Axioms 111.17 Floating-Point Numbers 121.17.1 Range of Numbers and Precision 131.17.2 Floating-Point Number Formats 13Review Questions 17Problems 17Further Reading 182 Binary Codes 192.1 Binary Coded Decimal 192.1.1 BCD-to-Binary Conversion 202.1.2 Binary-to-BCD Conversion 202.1.3 Higher-Density BCD Encoding 212.1.4 Packed and Unpacked BCD Numbers 212.2 Excess-3 Code 212.3 Gray Code 232.3.1 Binary–Gray Code Conversion 242.3.2 Gray Code–Binary Conversion 252.3.3 n-ary Gray Code 252.3.4 Applications 252.4 Alphanumeric Codes 272.4.1 ASCII code 282.4.2 EBCDIC code 312.4.3 Unicode 372.5 Seven-segment Display Code 382.6 Error Detection and Correction Codes 402.6.1 Parity Code 412.6.2 Repetition Code 412.6.3 Cyclic Redundancy Check Code 412.6.4 Hamming Code 42Review Questions 44Problems 45Further Reading 453 Digital Arithmetic 473.1 Basic Rules of Binary Addition and Subtraction 473.2 Addition of Larger-Bit Binary Numbers 493.2.1 Addition Using the 2’s Complement Method 493.3 Subtraction of Larger-Bit Binary Numbers 523.3.1 Subtraction Using 2’s Complement Arithmetic 533.4 BCD Addition and Subtraction in Excess-3 Code 573.4.1 Addition 573.4.2 Subtraction 573.5 Binary Multiplication 583.5.1 Repeated Left-Shift and Add Algorithm 593.5.2 Repeated Add and Right-Shift Algorithm 593.6 Binary Division 603.6.1 Repeated Right-Shift and Subtract Algorithm 613.6.2 Repeated Subtract and Left-Shift Algorithm 623.7 Floating-Point Arithmetic 643.7.1 Addition and Subtraction 653.7.2 Multiplication and Division 65Review Questions 67Problems 68Further Reading 684 Logic Gates and Related Devices 694.1 Positive and Negative Logic 694.2 Truth Table 704.3 Logic Gates 714.3.1 OR Gate 714.3.2 AND Gate 734.3.3 NOT Gate 754.3.4 EXCLUSIVE-OR Gate 764.3.5 NAND Gate 794.3.6 NOR Gate 794.3.7 EXCLUSIVE-NOR Gate 804.3.8 INHIBIT Gate 824.4 Universal Gates 854.5 Gates with Open Collector/Drain Outputs 854.6 Tristate Logic Gates 874.7 AND-OR-INVERT Gates 874.8 Schmitt Gates 884.9 Special Output Gates 914.10 Fan-Out of Logic Gates 954.11 Buffers and Transceivers 984.12 IEEE/ANSI Standard Symbols 1004.12.1 IEEE/ANSI Standards – Salient Features 1004.12.2 ANSI Symbols for Logic Gate ICs 1014.13 Some Common Applications of Logic Gates 1024.13.1 OR Gate 1034.13.2 AND Gate 1044.13.3 EX-OR/EX-NOR Gate 1044.13.4 Inverter 1054.14 Application-Relevant Information 107Review Questions 109Problems 110Further Reading 1145 Logic Families 1155.1 Logic Families – Significance and Types 1155.1.1 Significance 1155.1.2 Types of Logic Family 1165.2 Characteristic Parameters 1185.3 Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) 1245.3.1 Standard TTL 1255.3.2 Other Logic Gates in Standard TTL 1275.3.3 Low-Power TTL 1335.3.4 High-Power TTL (74H/54H) 1345.3.5 Schottky TTL (74S/54S) 1355.3.6 Low-Power Schottky TTL (74LS/54LS) 1365.3.7 Advanced Low-Power Schottky TTL (74ALS/54ALS) 1375.3.8 Advanced Schottky TTL (74AS/54AS) 1395.3.9 Fairchild Advanced Schottky TTL (74F/54F) 1405.3.10 Floating and Unused Inputs 1415.3.11 Current Transients and Power Supply Decoupling 1425.4 Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) 1475.4.1 Different Subfamilies 1475.4.2 Logic Gate Implementation in ECL 1485.4.3 Salient Features of ECL 1505.5 CMOS Logic Family 1515.5.1 Circuit Implementation of Logic Functions 1515.5.2 CMOS Subfamilies 1655.6 BiCMOS Logic 1705.6.1 BiCMOS Inverter 1715.6.2 BiCMOS NAND 1715.7 NMOS and PMOS Logic 1725.7.1 PMOS Logic 1735.7.2 NMOS Logic 1745.8 Integrated Injection Logic (I2L) Family 1745.9 Comparison of Different Logic Families 1765.10 Guidelines to Using TTL Devices 1765.11 Guidelines to Handling and Using CMOS Devices 1795.12 Interfacing with Different Logic Families 1795.12.1 CMOS-to-TTL Interface 1795.12.2 TTL-to-CMOS Interface 1805.12.3 TTL-to-ECL and ECL-to-TTL Interfaces 1805.12.4 CMOS-to-ECL and ECL-to-CMOS Interfaces 1835.13 Classification of Digital ICs 1835.14 Application-Relevant Information 184Review Questions 185Problems 185Further Reading 1876 Boolean Algebra and Simplification Techniques 1896.1 Introduction to Boolean Algebra 1896.1.1 Variables, Literals and Terms in Boolean Expressions 1906.1.2 Equivalent and Complement of Boolean Expressions 1906.1.3 Dual of a Boolean Expression 1916.2 Postulates of Boolean Algebra 1926.3 Theorems of Boolean Algebra 1926.3.1 Theorem 1 (Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’) 1926.3.2 Theorem 2 (Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’) 1936.3.3 Theorem 3 (Idempotent or Identity Laws) 1936.3.4 Theorem 4 (Complementation Law) 1936.3.5 Theorem 5 (Commutative Laws) 1946.3.6 Theorem 6 (Associative Laws) 1946.3.7 Theorem 7 (Distributive Laws) 1956.3.8 Theorem 8 1966.3.9 Theorem 9 1976.3.10 Theorem 10 (Absorption Law or Redundancy Law) 1976.3.11 Theorem 11 1976.3.12 Theorem 12 (Consensus Theorem) 1986.3.13 Theorem 13 (DeMorgan’s Theorem) 1996.3.14 Theorem 14 (Transposition Theorem) 2006.3.15 Theorem 15 2016.3.16 Theorem 16 2016.3.17 Theorem 17 (Involution Law) 2026.4 Simplification Techniques 2046.4.1 Sum-of-Products Boolean Expressions 2046.4.2 Product-of-Sums Expressions 2056.4.3 Expanded Forms of Boolean Expressions 2066.4.4 Canonical Form of Boolean Expressions 2066.4.5 _ and _ Nomenclature 2076.5 Quine–McCluskey Tabular Method 2086.5.1 Tabular Method for Multi-Output Functions 2126.6 Karnaugh Map Method 2166.6.1 Construction of a Karnaugh Map 2166.6.2 Karnaugh Map for Boolean Expressions with a Larger Number of Variables 2226.6.3 Karnaugh Maps for Multi-Output Functions 225Review Questions 230Problems 230Further Reading 2317 Arithmetic Circuits 2337.1 Combinational Circuits 2337.2 Implementing Combinational Logic 2357.3 Arithmetic Circuits – Basic Building Blocks 2367.3.1 Half-Adder 2367.3.2 Full Adder 2377.3.3 Half-Subtractor 2407.3.4 Full Subtractor 2427.3.5 Controlled Inverter 2447.4 Adder–Subtractor 2457.5 BCD Adder 2467.6 Carry Propagation–Look-Ahead Carry Generator 2547.7 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 2607.8 Multipliers 2607.9 Magnitude Comparator 2617.9.1 Cascading Magnitude Comparators 2637.10 Application-Relevant Information 266Review Questions 266Problems 267Further Reading 2688 Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 2698.1 Multiplexer 2698.1.1 Inside the Multiplexer 2718.1.2 Implementing Boolean Functions with Multiplexers 2738.1.3 Multiplexers for Parallel-to-Serial Data Conversion 2778.1.4 Cascading Multiplexer Circuits 2808.2 Encoders 2808.2.1 Priority Encoder 2818.3 Demultiplexers and Decoders 2858.3.1 Implementing Boolean Functions with Decoders 2868.3.2 Cascading Decoder Circuits 2888.4 Application-Relevant Information 293Review Questions 294Problems 295Further Reading 2989 Programmable Logic Devices 2999.1 Fixed Logic Versus Programmable Logic 2999.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 3019.2 Programmable Logic Devices – An Overview 3029.2.1 Programmable ROMs 3029.2.2 Programmable Logic Array 3029.2.3 Programmable Array Logic 3049.2.4 Generic Array Logic 3059.2.5 Complex Programmable Logic Device 3069.2.6 Field-Programmable Gate Array 3079.3 Programmable ROMs 3089.4 Programmable Logic Array 3129.5 Programmable Array Logic 3179.5.1 PAL Architecture 3199.5.2 PAL Numbering System 3209.6 Generic Array Logic 3259.7 Complex Programmable Logic Devices 3289.7.1 Internal Architecture 3289.7.2 Applications 3309.8 Field-Programmable Gate Arrays 3319.8.1 Internal Architecture 3319.8.2 Applications 3339.9 Programmable Interconnect Technologies 3339.9.1 Fuse 3349.9.2 Floating-Gate Transistor Switch 3349.9.3 Static RAM-Controlled Programmable Switches 3359.9.4 Antifuse 3359.10 Design and Development of Programmable Logic Hardware 3379.11 Programming Languages 3389.11.1 ABEL-Hardware Description Language 3399.11.2 VHDL-VHSIC Hardware Description Language 3399.11.3 Verilog 3399.11.4 Java HDL 3409.12 Application Information on PLDs 3409.12.1 SPLDs 3409.12.2 CPLDs 3439.12.3 FPGAs 349Review Questions 352Problems 353Further Reading 35510 Flip-Flops and Related Devices 35710.1 Multivibrator 35710.1.1 Bistable Multivibrator 35710.1.2 Schmitt Trigger 35810.1.3 Monostable Multivibrator 36010.1.4 Astable Multivibrator 36210.2 Integrated Circuit (IC) Multivibrators 36310.2.1 Digital IC-Based Monostable Multivibrator 36310.2.2 IC Timer-Based Multivibrators 36310.3 R-S Flip-Flop 37310.3.1 R-S Flip-Flop with Active LOW Inputs 37410.3.2 R-S Flip-Flop with Active HIGH Inputs 37510.3.3 Clocked R-S Flip-Flop 37710.4 Level-Triggered and Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops 38110.5 J-K Flip-Flop 38210.5.1 J-K Flip-Flop with PRESET and CLEAR Inputs 38210.5.2 Master–Slave Flip-Flops 38210.6 Toggle Flip-Flop (T Flip-Flop) 39010.6.1 J-K Flip-Flop as a Toggle Flip-Flop 39110.7 D Flip-Flop 39410.7.1 J-K Flip-Flop as D Flip-Flop 39510.7.2 D Latch 39510.8 Synchronous and Asynchronous Inputs 39810.9 Flip-Flop Timing Parameters 39910.9.1 Set-Up and Hold Times 39910.9.2 Propagation Delay 39910.9.3 Clock Pulse HIGH and LOW Times 40110.9.4 Asynchronous Input Active Pulse Width 40110.9.5 Clock Transition Times 40210.9.6 Maximum Clock Frequency 40210.10 Flip-Flop Applications 40210.10.1 Switch Debouncing 40210.10.2 Flip-Flop Synchronization 40410.10.3 Detecting the Sequence of Edges 40410.11 Application-Relevant Data 407Review Questions 408Problems 409Further Reading 41011 Counters and Registers 41111.1 Ripple (Asynchronous) Counter 41111.1.1 Propagation Delay in Ripple Counters 41211.2 Synchronous Counter 41311.3 Modulus of a Counter 41311.4 Binary Ripple Counter – Operational Basics 41311.4.1 Binary Ripple Counters with a Modulus of Less than 2N 41611.4.2 Ripple Counters in IC Form 41811.5 Synchronous (or Parallel) Counters 42311.6 UP/DOWN Counters 42511.7 Decade and BCD Counters 42611.8 Presettable Counters 42611.8.1 Variable Modulus with Presettable Counters 42811.9 Decoding a Counter 42811.10 Cascading Counters 43311.10.1 Cascading Binary Counters 43311.10.2 Cascading BCD Counters 43511.11 Designing Counters with Arbitrary Sequences 43811.11.1 Excitation Table of a Flip-Flop 43811.11.2 State Transition Diagram 43911.11.3 Design Procedure 43911.12 Shift Register 44711.12.1 Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register 44911.12.2 Serial-In Parallel-Out Shift Register 45211.12.3 Parallel-In Serial-Out Shift Register 45211.12.4 Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register 45311.12.5 Bidirectional Shift Register 45511.12.6 Universal Shift Register 45511.13 Shift Register Counters 45911.13.1 Ring Counter 45911.13.2 Shift Counter 46011.14 IEEE/ANSI Symbology for Registers and Counters 46411.14.1 Counters 46411.14.2 Registers 46611.15 Application-Relevant Information 466Review Questions 466Problems 469Further Reading 47112 Data Conversion Circuits – D/A and A/D Converters 47312.1 Digital-to-Analogue Converters 47312.1.1 Simple Resistive Divider Network for D/A Conversion 47412.1.2 Binary Ladder Network for D/A Conversion 47512.2 D/A Converter Specifications 47612.2.1 Resolution 47612.2.2 Accuracy 47712.2.3 Conversion Speed or Settling Time 47712.2.4 Dynamic Range 47812.2.5 Nonlinearity and Differential Nonlinearity 47812.2.6 Monotonocity 47812.3 Types of D/A Converter 47912.3.1 Multiplying D/A Converters 47912.3.2 Bipolar-Output D/A Converters 48012.3.3 Companding D/A Converters 48012.4 Modes of Operation 48012.4.1 Current Steering Mode of Operation 48012.4.2 Voltage Switching Mode of Operation 48112.5 BCD-Input D/A Converter 48212.6 Integrated Circuit D/A Converters 48612.6.1 DAC-08 48612.6.2 DAC-0808 48712.6.3 DAC-80 48712.6.4 AD 7524 48912.6.5 DAC-1408/DAC-1508 48912.7 D/A Converter Applications 49012.7.1 D/A Converter as a Multiplier 49012.7.2 D/A converter as a Divider 49012.7.3 Programmable Integrator 49112.7.4 Low-Frequency Function Generator 49212.7.5 Digitally Controlled Filters 49312.8 A/D Converters 49512.9 A/D Converter Specifications 49512.9.1 Resolution 49512.9.2 Accuracy 49612.9.3 Gain and Offset Errors 49612.9.4 Gain and Offset Drifts 49612.9.5 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Phenomenon 49612.9.6 Quantization Error 49612.9.7 Nonlinearity 49712.9.8 Differential Nonlinearity 49712.9.9 Conversion Time 49812.9.10 Aperture and Acquisition Times 49812.9.11 Code Width 49912.10 A/D Converter Terminology 49912.10.1 Unipolar Mode Operation 49912.10.2 Bipolar Mode Operation 49912.10.3 Coding 49912.10.4 Low Byte and High Byte 49912.10.5 Right-Justified Data, Left-Justified Data 49912.10.6 Command Register, Status Register 50012.10.7 Control Lines 50012.11 Types of A/D Converter 50012.11.1 Simultaneous or Flash A/D Converters 50012.11.2 Half-Flash A/D Converter 50312.11.3 Counter-Type A/D Converter 50412.11.4 Tracking-Type A/D Converter 50512.11.5 Successive Approximation Type A/D Converter 50512.11.6 Single-, Dual- and Multislope A/D Converters 50612.11.7 Sigma-Delta A/D Converter 50912.12 Integrated Circuit A/D Converters 51312.12.1 ADC-0800 51312.12.2 ADC-0808 51412.12.3 ADC-80/AD ADC-80 51512.12.4 ADC-84/ADC-85/AD ADC-84/AD ADC-85/AD-5240 51612.12.5 AD 7820 51612.12.6 ICL 7106/ICL 7107 51712.13 A/D Converter Applications 52012.13.1 Data Acquisition 521Review Questions 522Problems 523Further Reading 52313 Microprocessors 52513.1 Introduction to Microprocessors 52513.2 Evolution of Microprocessors 52713.3 Inside a Microprocessor 52813.3.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 52913.3.2 Register File 52913.3.3 Control Unit 53113.4 Basic Microprocessor Instructions 53113.4.1 Data Transfer Instructions 53113.4.2 Arithmetic Instructions 53213.4.3 Logic Instructions 53313.4.4 Control Transfer or Branch or Program Control Instructions 53313.4.5 Machine Control Instructions 53413.5 Addressing Modes 53413.5.1 Absolute or Memory Direct Addressing Mode 53413.5.2 Immediate Addressing Mode 53513.5.3 Register Direct Addressing Mode 53513.5.4 Register Indirect Addressing Mode 53513.5.5 Indexed Addressing Mode 53613.5.6 Implicit Addressing Mode and Relative Addressing Mode 53713.6 Microprocessor Selection 53713.6.1 Selection Criteria 53713.6.2 Microprocessor Selection Table for Common Applications 53913.7 Programming Microprocessors 54013.8 RISC Versus CISC Processors 54113.9 Eight-Bit Microprocessors 54113.9.1 8085 Microprocessor 54113.9.2 Motorola 6800 Microprocessor 54413.9.3 Zilog Z80 Microprocessor 54613.10 16-Bit Microprocessors 54713.10.1 8086 Microprocessor 54713.10.2 80186 Microprocessor 54813.10.3 80286 Microprocessor 54813.10.4 MC68000 Microprocessor 54913.11 32-Bit Microprocessors 55113.11.1 80386 Microprocessor 55113.11.2 MC68020 Microprocessor 55313.11.3 MC68030 Microprocessor 55413.11.4 80486 Microprocessor 55513.11.5 PowerPC RISC Microprocessors 55713.12 Pentium Series of Microprocessors 55713.12.1 Salient Features 55813.12.2 Pentium Pro Microprocessor 55913.12.3 Pentium II Series 55913.12.4 Pentium III and Pentium IV Microprocessors 55913.12.5 Pentium M, D and Extreme Edition Processors 55913.12.6 Celeron and Xeon Processors 56013.13 Microprocessors for Embedded Applications 56013.14 Peripheral Devices 56013.14.1 Programmable Timer/Counter 56113.14.2 Programmable Peripheral Interface 56113.14.3 Programmable Interrupt Controller 56113.14.4 DMA Controller 56113.14.5 Programmable Communication Interface 56213.14.6 Math Coprocessor 56213.14.7 Programmable Keyboard/Display Interface 56213.14.8 Programmable CRT Controller 56213.14.9 Floppy Disk Controller 56313.14.10 Clock Generator 56313.14.11 Octal Bus Transceiver 563Review Questions 563Further Reading 56414 Microcontrollers 56514.1 Introduction to the Microcontroller 56514.1.1 Applications 56714.2 Inside the Microcontroller 56714.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 56814.2.2 Random Access Memory (RAM) 56914.2.3 Read Only Memory (ROM) 56914.2.4 Special-Function Registers 56914.2.5 Peripheral Components 56914.3 Microcontroller Architecture 57414.3.1 Architecture to Access Memory 57414.3.2 Mapping Special-Function Registers into Memory Space 57614.3.3 Processor Architecture 57714.4 Power-Saving Modes 57914.5 Application-Relevant Information 58014.5.1 Eight-Bit Microcontrollers 58014.5.2 16-Bit Microcontrollers 58814.5.3 32-Bit Microcontrollers 59014.6 Interfacing Peripheral Devices with a Microcontroller 59214.6.1 Interfacing LEDs 59214.6.2 Interfacing Electromechanical Relays 59314.6.3 Interfacing Keyboards 59414.6.4 Interfacing Seven-Segment Displays 59614.6.5 Interfacing LCD Displays 59814.6.6 Interfacing A/D Converters 60014.6.7 Interfacing D/A Converters 600Review Questions 602Problems 602Further Reading 60315 Computer Fundamentals 60515.1 Anatomy of a Computer 60515.1.1 Central Processing Unit 60515.1.2 Memory 60615.1.3 Input/Output Ports 60715.2 A Computer System 60715.3 Types of Computer System 60715.3.1 Classification of Computers on the Basis of Applications 60715.3.2 Classification of Computers on the Basis of the Technology Used 60815.3.3 Classification of Computers on the Basis of Size and Capacity 60915.4 Computer Memory 61015.4.1 Primary Memory 61115.5 Random Access Memory 61215.5.1 Static RAM 61215.5.2 Dynamic RAM 61915.5.3 RAM Applications 62215.6 Read Only Memory 62215.6.1 ROM Architecture 62315.6.2 Types of ROM 62415.6.3 Applications of ROMs 62915.7 Expanding Memory Capacity 63215.7.1 Word Size Expansion 63215.7.2 Memory Location Expansion 63415.8 Input and Output Ports 63715.8.1 Serial Ports 63815.8.2 Parallel Ports 64015.8.3 Internal Buses 64215.9 Input/Output Devices 64215.9.1 Input Devices 64315.9.2 Output Devices 64315.10 Secondary Storage or Auxiliary Storage 64515.10.1 Magnetic Storage Devices 64515.10.2 Magneto-Optical Storage Devices 64815.10.3 Optical Storage Devices 64815.10.4 USB Flash Drive 650Review Questions 650Problems 650Further Reading 65116 Troubleshooting Digital Circuits and Test Equipment 65316.1 General Troubleshooting Guidelines 65316.1.1 Faults Internal to Digital Integrated Circuits 65416.1.2 Faults External to Digital Integrated Circuits 65516.2 Troubleshooting Sequential Logic Circuits 65916.3 Troubleshooting Arithmetic Circuits 66316.4 Troubleshooting Memory Devices 66416.4.1 Troubleshooting RAM Devices 66416.4.2 Troubleshooting ROM Devices 66416.5 Test and Measuring Equipment 66516.6 Digital Multimeter 66516.6.1 Advantages of Using a Digital Multimeter 66616.6.2 Inside the Digital Meter 66616.6.3 Significance of the Half-Digit 66616.7 Oscilloscope 66816.7.1 Importance of Specifications and Front-Panel Controls 66816.7.2 Types of Oscilloscope 66916.8 Analogue Oscilloscopes 66916.9 CRT Storage Type Analogue Oscilloscopes 66916.10 Digital Oscilloscopes 66916.11 Analogue Versus Digital Oscilloscopes 67216.12 Oscilloscope Specifications 67216.12.1 Analogue Oscilloscopes 67316.12.2 Analogue Storage Oscilloscope 67416.12.3 Digital Storage Oscilloscope 67416.13 Oscilloscope Probes 67716.13.1 Probe Compensation 67716.14 Frequency Counter 67816.14.1 Universal Counters – Functional Modes 67916.14.2 Basic Counter Architecture 67916.14.3 Reciprocal Counters 68116.14.4 Continuous-Count Counters 68216.14.5 Counter Specifications 68216.14.6 Microwave Counters 68316.15 Frequency Synthesizers and Synthesized Function/Signal Generators 68416.15.1 Direct Frequency Synthesis 68416.15.2 Indirect Synthesis 68516.15.3 Sampled Sine Synthesis (Direct Digital Synthesis) 68716.15.4 Important Specifications 68916.15.5 Synthesized Function Generators 68916.15.6 Arbitrary Waveform Generator 69016.16 Logic Probe 69116.17 Logic Analyser 69216.17.1 Operational Modes 69216.17.2 Logic Analyser Architecture 69216.17.3 Key Specifications 69516.18 Computer–Instrument Interface Standards 69616.18.1 IEEE-488 Interface 69616.19 Virtual Instrumentation 69716.19.1 Use of Virtual Instruments 69816.19.2 Components of a Virtual Instrument 700Review Questions 703Problems 704Further Reading 705Index 707

"It is easy to read, well structured, and will be a rich resource and valuable study companion for students of electrical and computer engineering." (Computing Reviews, February 6, 2008) "There is a particularly notable section on numerical systems and conversions from one radix system to another that, along with the presentation of binary coding and interpretation schemes, demonstrates the clarity and extent of Maini's work to construct a definitive road map..." (CHOICE, March 2008)