Corrosion Engineering and Cathodic Protection Handbook

Volkan Cicek, PhD, is a chemist and corrosion scientist and received his B. Sc. in Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey and his PhD from Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, US. After working as a dean of academics and vice principal in US public schools for several years, Dr. Cicek is currently the vice president for scientific affairs at Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq.

• Preface xvPart 1 Corrosion Chemistry1 Corrosion and its Definition 32 The Corrosion Process and Affecting Factors 53 Corrosion Types Based on Mechanism 73.1 Uniform Corrosion 73.2 Pitting Corrosion 73.3 Crevice Corrosion 83.4 Galvanic Corrosion 83.5 Intergranular Corrosion 83.6 Selective Corrosion 93.7 Erosion or Abrasion Corrosion 93.8 Cavitation Corrosion 93.9 Fretting Corrosion 93.10 Stress Corrosion Cracking 93.11 Microbial Corrosion 94 Corrosion Types of Based on the Media 114.1 Atmospheric Corrosion 114.2 Corrosion in Water 124.3 Corrosion in Soil 135 Nature of Protective Metal Oxide Films 156 Effect of Aggressive Anions on Corrosion 177 Corrosion Prevention Methods 198 Commonly Used Alloys and their Properties 218.1 Aluminum 2024 Alloy 218.2 Aluminum 7075 Alloy 228.3 Aluminum 6061 Alloy 229 Cost of Corrosion and Use of Corrosion Inhibitors 2310 Types of Corrosion Inhibitors 2510.1 Anodic Inhibitors 2510.2 Cathodic Inhibitors 2511 Chromates: Best Corrosion Inhibitors to Date 2711.1 Limitations on the Use of Chromates due to Toxicity 2711.2 Corrosion Inhibition Mechanism of Chromates 2912 Chromate Inhibitor Replacements: Current and Potential Applications 3112.1 Nitrites 3112.2 Trivalent Chromium Compounds 3112.3 Oxyanions Analogous to Chromate 3212.4 Synergistic Use of Oxyanions Analogues of Chromate 3413 Sol-Gels (Ormosils): Properties and Uses 3513.1 Types of Sol-Gels 3513.2 Corrosion Inhibition Mechanism of Sol-Gel Coatings 3613.3 Synthesis of Sol-Gels 3713.4 Incorporation of Corrosion Inhibitive Pigments into Sol-Gel Coatings 3814 Corrosion in Engineering Materials 3914.1 Introduction 3914.2 Steel Structures 3914.3 Concrete Structures 4014.4 Protection Against Corrosion in Concrete Construction 4414.5 Corrosion of Unbonded Prestressing Tendons 5114.6 Cathodic Protection 5214.7 Corrosion in Industrial Projects 57References 61Part 2 Cathodic Protection15 Corrosion of Materials 7515.1 Deterioration or Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 7515.2 Degradation or Deterioration of Polymers 7615.3 Corrosion or Deterioration of Metals 7616 Factors Influencing Corrosion 8316.1 Nature of the Metal 8316.2 Nature of the Corroding Environment 8417 Corrosion Mechanisms 8717.1 Direct Chemical Attack or Chemical or Dry Corrosion 8717.2 Electrochemical or Aqueous or Wet Corrosion 8817.3 Differences between Chemical and Electrochemical Corrosion 9018 Corrosion Types 9118.1 Uniform Corrosion 9118.2 Non-Uniform Corrosion 9519 Thermodynamics of Corrosion 10719.1 Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG) 10719.2 Passivity 10819.3 Pourbaix Diagrams 10919.4 Corrosion Equilibrium and Adsorptions 11019.5 Concentration Corrosion Cells 11019.6 Polarization 11119.7 Polarization Curves 11320 Corrosion Prevention and Protection 11720.1 Proper Design 11720.2 Choice of Material 11820.3 Protective Coatings 12020.4 Changing the Environmental Factors that Accelerate Corrosion 12320.5 Changing the Electrochemical Characteristic of the Metal Surface 12621 Cost of Corrosion 12921.1 Corrosion Preventative Measures 12921.2 Lost Production Due to Plants Going out of Service or Shutdowns 12921.3 Product Loss Due to Leakages 12921.4 Contamination of the Product 13021.5 Maintenance Costs 13021.6 Overprotective Measures 13022 Cathodic Protection 13122.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Systems 13122.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems 13222.3 Cathodic Protection Current Need 13322.4 Effect of Coatings on Cathodic Protection 13422.5 Effect of Passivation on Cathodic Protection 13422.6 Automated Cathodic Protection Systems 13422.7 Cathodic Protection Criteria 13422.8 Reliability of Cathodic Protection Criteria 13522.9 Interference Effects of Cathodic Protection Systems 13522.10 Criteria for Cathodic Protection Projects 13822.11 Cost of Cathodic Protection 13822.12 Comparison of Cathodic Protection Systems 13923 Sacrificial Anode or Galvanic Cathodic Protection Systems 14123.1 Anodic Potentials and Anodic Polarization 14123.2 Galvanic Cathodic Protection Current Need 14223.3 Anodic Current Capacity and Anodic Current Efficiency 14223.4 Service Life of an Anode 14223.5 Minimum Number of Galvanic Anodes 14223.6 Commonly Used Galvanic Anodes 14323.7 Performance Measurements of Galvanic Anodes 14523.8 Galvanic Anodic Beds 14623.9 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Projects 14823.10 Maintenance of Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Systems 14824 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems 15124.1 T/R Units 15124.2 Types of Anodes 15324.3 Anodic Bed Resistance 15424.4 Types of Anodic Beds 15524.5 Cable Cross-Sections 15624.6 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Projects 15624.7 Maintenance of Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems 15725 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention of Concrete Structures 15925.1 Concrete’s Chemical Composition 15925.2 Corrosion Reactions of Concrete 16025.3 Factors Affecting Corrosion Rate in Reinforced Concrete Structures 16025.4 Corrosion Measurements in Reinforced Concrete Structures 16425.5 Corrosion Prevention of Reinforced Concrete 16626 Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete Steels 16726.1 Current Needed for Cathodic Protection of Steel Structures 16826.2 Cathodic Protection Criteria 16826.3 Determination of Protection Potential 16826.4 Cathodic Protection Methods for Reinforced Concrete Steels 16826.5 Cathodic Protection of Pre-Stressed Steel Concrete Pipes 16927 Corrosion in Petroleum Industry 17127.1 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) and Chlorides 17227.2 Hydrogen (H2) Gas 17227.3 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) and Other Sulfur Compounds 17327.4 Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) 17327.5 Hydrogen Fluoride (HF) 17327.6 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 17327.7 Dissolved Oxygen (O2) and Water (H2O) 17427.8 Organic Acids 17527.9 Nitrogen (N2) Compounds and Ammonia (NH3) 17527.10 Phenols 17527.11 Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4) 17527.12 Caustic Soda (NaOH) 17627.13 Mercury (Hg) 17627.14 Aluminum Chloride (AlCl3) 17627.15 Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) 17628 Corrosion in Pipeline Systems 17728.1 Pipes Made of Iron and its Alloys 17728.2 Petroleum or Crude Oil Pipeline Systems 17828.3 Water Pipeline Systems 17929 Cathodic Protection of Pipeline Systems 18129.1 Measurement of Terrain’s Resistivity 18129.2 Potential Measurements 18229.3 Determination of Coating Failures Based on Potential Measurements 18329.4 Measuring Potential Along the Pipeline 18329.5 Maintenance of Pipeline Cathodic Protection Systems 18329.6 Measurement Stations 18429.8 Cathodic Protection of Airport Fuel Distribution Lines 18529.9 Cathodic Protection of Water Pipelines 18530 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection of Crude Oil or Petroleum Storage Tanks 18730.1 Cathodic Protection of Inner Surfaces of Crude Oil Storage Tanks 18731 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection of Metallic Structures in Seawater 19131.1 Factors Affecting Corrosion Rate of Metallic Structures in Seawater 19131.2 Cathodic Protection of Metallic Structures in the Sea 19331.3 Cathodic Protection of Ships 19331.4 Cathodic Protection of Pier Poles with Galvanic Anodes 19632 Cathodic Protection of the Potable Water Tanks 19733 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention in Boilers 19933.1 Corrosion in Boilers 19933.2 Corrosion Prevention in Boilers 20034 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention in Geothermal Systems 20334.1 Corrosion in Geothermal Systems 20334.2 Corrosion Prevention in Geothermal Systems 203References 205Part 3 Corrosion Engineering35 Corrosion of Materials 21535.1 Deterioration or Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 21635.2 Degradation or Deterioration of Polymers 21635.3 Corrosion or Deterioration of Metals 21636 Cost of Corrosion 22536.1 Corrosion Preventative Measures 22536.2 Lost Production Due to Plants Going out of Service or Shutdowns 22636.3 Product Loss Due to Leakages 22636.4 Contamination of the Product 22636.5 Maintenance Costs 22636.6 Overprotective Measures 22637 Factors Influencing Corrosion 22737.1 Nature of the Metal 22837.2 Nature of the Corroding Environment 22938 Corrosion Mechanisms 23138.1 Direct Chemical Attack or Chemical or Dry Corrosion 23138.2 Electrochemical or Aqueous or Wet Corrosion 23238.3 Differences between Chemical and Electrochemical Corrosion 23439 Types of Corrosion 23539.1 Uniform Corrosion 23539.2 Non-Uniform Corrosion 24140 The Thermodynamics of Corrosion 25340.1 Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG) 25340.2 Passivity 25440.3 Pourbaix Diagrams 25540.4 Corrosion Equilibrium and Adsorptions 25640.5 Concentration Corrosion Cells 25640.6 Polarization 25740.7 Polarization Curves 25941 Corrosion Prevention and Protection 26341.1 Proper Design 26441.2 Choice of Material 26541.3 Protective Coatings 26741.4 Changing the Environmental Factors that Accelerate Corrosion 27341.5 Changing the Electrochemical Characteristic of the Metal Surface 28442 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention of Concrete Structures 29542.1 Concrete’s Chemical Composition 29542.2 Corrosion Reactions of Concrete 29642.3 Factors Affecting Corrosion Rate in Reinforced Concrete Structures 29642.4 Corrosion Measurements in Reinforced Concrete Structures 30042.5 Corrosion Prevention of Reinforced Concrete 30243 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention of Metallic Structures in Seawater 30543.1 Factors Affecting Corrosion Rate of Metallic Structures in Seawater 30543.2 Cathodic Protection of Metallic Structures in the Sea 30744 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention in Petroleum Industry 30944.1 Chemicals that Cause Corrosion in Petroleum Industry 31044.2 Petroleum or Crude Oil Pipeline Systems 31444.3 Crude Oil or Petroleum Storage Tanks 31545 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention in Water Transportation and Storage Industry 31745.1 Water Pipeline Systems 31745.2 Cooling Water Systems 31945.3 Potable Water Tanks 31945.4 Boilers 31945.5 Geothermal Systems 322References 325Part 4 Questions and Answers46 Corrosion: Definition and History 341Questions 341Answers & Solutions 343Answer Key 34447 Corrosion of Materials 345Questions 345Answers & Solutions 356Answer Key 36448 Cost of Corrosion 365Questions 365Answers & Solutions 367Answer Key 36949 Factors Influencing Corrosion 371Questions 371Answers & Solutions 375Answer Key 38050 Corrosion Mechanisms 381Questions 381Answers & Solutions 383Answer Key 38651 Types of Corrosion 387Questions 387Answers & Solutions 409Answer Key 43152 Corrosion Prevention 433Questions 433Answers & Solutions 467Answer Key 50253 Corrosion in Engineering Materials 503Questions 503Answers & Solutions 526Answer Key 54854 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention of Concrete Structures 551Questions 551Answers & Solutions 564Answer Key 57455 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention of Metallic Structures in Seawater 575Questions 575Answers & Solutions 578Answer Key 58056 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention in Petroleum Industry 581Questions 581Answers & Solutions 591Answer Key 60157 Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention in Water Transportation and Storage Industry 603Questions 603Answers & Solutions 610Answer Key 61758 Thermodynamics of Corrosion 619Questions 619Answers & Solutions 626Answer Key 63359 Cathodic Protection 635Questions 635Answers & Solutions 648Answer Key 66060 Sacrificial Anode or Galvanic Cathodic Protection Systems 661Questions 661Answers & Solutions 671Answer Key 68161 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems 683Questions 683Answers & Questions 693Answer Key 70262 Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete Steels 703Questions 703Answers & Solutions 707Answer Key 71063 Cathodic Protection of Pipeline Systems 711Questions 711Answers & Solutions 717Answer Key 72264 Cathodic Protection of Crude Oil or Petroleum Storage Tanks 723Questions 723Answers & Solutions 726Answer Key 72965 Cathodic Protection of Metallic Structures in the Sea 731Questions 731Answers & Solutions 737Answer Key 741Index 743