Civil Rights Movement

Dr. John A. Kirk is the George W. Donaghey Distinguished Professor of History and Director of the Joel E. Anderson Institute on Race and Ethnicity at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock, USA. He was previously a Professor of US History at Royal Holloway, University of London, UK, and is author and editor of several books including the award-winning Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970.

• Series Editors’ Preface xiiAcknowledgments xivIntroduction xviChapter 1 Origins of the Civil Rights Movement 11.1 New York Amsterdam Star‐News, “Bus Boycott Ends in Victory,” 1941 11.2 A. Philip Randolph, “Call to Negro America to March on Washington for Jobs and Equal Participation in National Defense,” 1941 31.3 James Farmer Recalls the Congress of Racial Equality’s Chicago Sit‐In in 1942 61.4 US Supreme Court, Smith v. Allwright, 1944 81.5 Annie L. McPheeters Interview on Grassroots Voter Registration in Atlanta in the 1930s and 1940s 111.6 Fifth Pan‐African Congress, Declaration to the Colonial Workers, Farmers and Intellectuals, 1945 141.7 Journey of Reconciliation, 1947 151.8 President’s Committee on Civil Rights, To Secure These Rights, 1947 171.9 President Harry S. Truman, Executive Order 9981, 1948 221.10 Henry Lee Moon, Balance of Power: The Negro Vote, 1948 241.11 States’ Rights Democratic Party, Platform of the States’ Rights Democratic Party, 1948 261.12 Congressman Jacob K. Javits, Press Release on Segregation and Discrimination in the Armed Forces, 1950 281.13 The Crusader, “Boycott of City Bus Company in Baton Rouge Forces End of Absolute Jimcrow,” 1953 301.14 Dorothy Height Recalls Her Work with the National Council of Negro Women from the 1930s to the 1950s 31Chapter 2 Brown v. Board of Education and Massive Resistance, 1954–6 352.1 US Supreme Court, McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 1950 352.2 United States, Brief as Amicus Curiae, Brown v. Board of Education, 1952 382.3 US Supreme Court, Brown v. Board of Education, 1954 402.4 Arkansas State Press, “After the Court’s Decision – Now What?” 1954 422.5 US Supreme Court, Brown v. Board of Education, 1955 442.6 Chicago Defender, “Blood on Their Hands … An Editorial,” [Emmett Till] 1955 462.7 R.B. Patterson, “Organization of a Local Citizens’ Council,” 1955 482.8 Southern US Congressmen, “Declaration of Constitutional Principles,” 1956 49Chapter 3 The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1955–7 553.1 Rosa Parks Recalls Her Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 553.2 Fred D. Gray Recalls His Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 573.3 E.D. Nixon Recalls His Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 583.4 Jo Ann Robinson Recalls Her Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 603.5 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Holt Street Baptist Church Speech,” 1955 613.6 US Supreme Court, Browder v. Gayle, 1956 643.7 Chicago Defender, “Bus Boycotts in 3 Cities,” 1956 653.8 Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Constitution and By‐Laws, 1957 683.9 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Give Us the Ballot,” 1957 69Chapter 4 The Little Rock Crisis and Desegregation in Education, 1957–62 734.1 Gov. Orval E. Faubus, Televised Speech, 1957 734.2 Ira Wilmer “Will” Counts, Jr, Elizabeth Eckford and Hazel Bryan, 1957 754.3 Daisy Bates Recalls Events at Central High School in 1957 764.4 President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Executive Order 10730, 1957 794.5 Larry Lubenow Recalls Interviewing Louis Armstrong aboutEvents in Little Rock in 1957 814.6 US Supreme Court, Cooper v. Aaron, 1958 834.7 Ruby Bridges Recalls School Desegregation in New Orleans in 1960 894.8 James Meredith Recalls Entering the University of Mississippi in 1962 92Chapter 5 The Sit‐Ins and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, 1960 955.1 Greensboro News and Record, The Greensboro Four, 1960 955.2 Kenneth T. Andrews and Michael Biggs, Map Showing Sit‐Ins in the American South, February through April 1960 965.3 St. Paul Dispatch‐Pioneer Press, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Members Picketing outside Woolworth’s for Integrated Lunch Counters, 1960 975.4 Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Statement of Purpose, 1960 995.5 Ella J. Baker, “Bigger than a Hamburger,” 1960 1005.6 Robert P. Moses, “Letter from a Mississippi Jail Cell,” 1961 102Chapter 6 The Freedom Rides and the Congress of Racial Equality, 1961 1056.1 US Supreme Court, Boynton v. Virginia, 1960 1056.2 Associated Press, Freedom Riders by Burned‐Out Bus, 1961 1096.3 James Peck Recalls Freedom Riders Being Beaten in Birmingham, Alabama in 1961 1106.4 Diane Nash Recalls the Nashville Students’ Involvement in the Freedom Rides in 1961 1116.5 John Seigenthaler Recalls Events in Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama in 1961 1146.6 John Lewis Recalls the Bus Journey from Montgomery to Jackson, Mississippi in 1961 1166.7 The Code of Federal Regulations of the United States of America, Title 49, 1963 117Chapter 7 Albany, Birmingham, and the March on Washington, 1961–3 1217.1 Laurie Pritchett Recalls Civil Rights Demonstrations in Albany, Georgia in 1961 and 1962 1217.2 Freedom Singers, “Ain’t Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me Around,” 1962 1257.3 Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights, “Birmingham: People in Motion” on Civil Rights Demonstrations in 1962 and 1963 1277.4 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Letter from Birmingham City Jail,” 1963 1297.5 Afro Newspaper/Gado, African‐American Protesters Being Attacked by Police Dog in a Street during Segregation Demonstrations, Birmingham, Alabama, 1963 1317.6 Michael Ochs, Black Children are Attacked by Firefighters with High‐Powered Water Hoses during a Protest Against Segregation in Birmingham, Alabama, 1963 1337.7 President John F. Kennedy, “Report to the American People on Civil Rights,” 1963 1337.8 John Lewis’s Original Text of His March on Washington Speech, 1963 1387.9 Lillian Foscue, “Dead and Injured Taken to Hospital,” 1963 140Chapter 8 The Civil Rights Act of 1964, Freedom Summer, and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964 1458.1 US Congress, Civil Rights Act of 1964 1458.2 Nina Simone, “Mississippi Goddam,” 1964 1508.3 Charles McLaurin, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Field Report, 1964 1538.4 Liz Fusco, “The Mississippi Freedom Schools: Deeper than Politics,” 1964 1558.5 Medical Committee for Human Rights, Press Release, 1964 1578.6 FBI Flyer on Disappearance of Civil Rights Workers Andrew Goodman, James Earl Chaney, and Michael Henry Schwerner, 1964 1598.7 Fannie Lou Hamer Testimony before Credentials Committee of the Democratic National Convention, 1964 161Chapter 9 The Selma Campaign and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 1659.1 William C. Sullivan (Anonymous), Letter to Martin Luther King, Jr, 1964 1659.2 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Letter from a Selma, Alabama, Jail,” 1965 1679.3 John Lewis Recalls the Events of “Bloody Sunday” in 1965 1689.4 Sheyann Webb Recalls the Events of “Bloody Sunday” in 1965 1709.5 Associated Press, An Officer Accosts an Unconscious Woman as Mounted Police Officers Attack Civil Rights Marchers in Selma, Alabama, 1965 1729.6 President Lyndon B. Johnson Addresses Congress on Voting Rights, 1965 1739.7 US Congress, Voting Rights Act of 1965 176Chapter 10 The Civil Rights Movement outside the South, 1965–75 18110.1 Bayard Rustin, “From Protest to Politics,” 1965 18110.2 Chicago Defender, “Long, Hot Summer Hits Los Angeles,” 1965 18310.3 Whitney M. Young, Jr, “The High Cost of Discrimination,” 1965 18510.4 Southern Christian Leadership Conference, A Proposal for the Development of a Nonviolent Action Movement for the Greater Chicago Area, 1966 18710.5 Douglas Robinson, “2 Rights Rallies Set Near Chicago,” 1966 18910.6 Associated Press, A Policeman Searches Black Suspects as Buildings are Burned during Unrest Following a Police Operation in Detroit, Michigan, 1967 19110.7 National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1968 19210.8 Ruth Batson Interview on Busing in Boston in the Mid‐1970s 20010.9 Louise Day Hicks, Letter to Congressman John Joseph Moakley, 1975 203Chapter 11 Black Power, 1966 20611.1 Robert F. Williams, Negroes with Guns, 1962 20611.2 Malcolm X, “Message to the Grassroots,” 1963 20811.3 John Hulett Interview on the Founding of the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (Black Panther Party) in Alabama in 1965 21111.4 Stokely Carmichael, “What We Want,” 1966 21411.5 Black Panther Party, Platform and Program, 1966 21711.6 Larry Neal, “The Black Arts Movement,” 1968 22111.7 Frances Beale, “Double Jeopardy: To be Black and Female,” 1969 22411.8 Angela Davis, An Autobiography, 1974 227Chapter 12 Vietnam, Economic Justice, and the Poor People’s Campaign, 1967–8 23112.1 Robert E. Holcomb Interview on Vietnam War Experiences in the 1960s 23112.2 Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Statement on Vietnam, 1966 23312.3 Martin Luther King, Jr, “Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence,” 1967 23612.4 US Congress, Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 23812.5 George Wiley, “Proposal for the Establishment of an Anti‐Poverty Action Center,” 1966 24012.6 Richard L. Copley, I Am a Man, 1968 24112.7 Dr. Sybil C. Mitchell, “The Invaders: The Real Story” on Memphis Demonstrations in 1968 24312.8 Ralph David Abernathy Recalls the Poor People’s Campaign in 1968 24512.9 Associated Press, Aerial View of Resurrection City, 1968 248Chapter 13 Affirmative Action, 1960s–1980s 25113.1 President John F. Kennedy, Executive Order 10925, 1961 25113.2 US Congress, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, 1964 25313.3 President Lyndon B. Johnson, “To Fulfill These Rights,” 1965 25713.4 Arthur A. Fletcher, “Revised Philadelphia Plan,” 1969 26513.5 Diane Nilsen Walcott, “Blacks in the 1970’s: Did They Scale the Job Ladder?” 26713.6 US Supreme Court, Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 1978 27013.7 US Supreme Court, Firefighters Local Union No. 1784 v. Stotts, 1984 271Chapter 14 Legacies of the Civil Rights Movement 27714.1 The Young Lords Organization, 13 Point Program and Platform, 1969 27714.2 Lacey Fosburgh, “Thousands of Homosexuals hold a Protest Rally in Central Park,” 1970 28114.3 The Combahee River Collective, The Combahee River Collective Statement, 1977 28314.4 President Ronald Reagan, “Remarks on Signing the Bill Making the Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr, a National Holiday,” 1983 28614.5 Nelson Mandela, “Atlanta Address on Civil Rights,” 1990 28814.6 Benjamin Chavis, Jr, “Foreword” Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots, 1999 29114.7 Congressman John Lewis Supports Renewal of the 1965 Voting Rights Act, 2006 29414.8 Justice Stephen Breyer Dissenting Opinion in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 et al., 2007 29614.9 Joe Raedle, Barack Obama Declares Victory in Presidential Election, 2008 30114.10 Children’s Defense Fund, Cradle to Prison PipelineR Campaign, 2009 30214.11 US Supreme Court, Shelby County v. Holder, 2013 30614.12 US Supreme Court, Fisher v. University of Texas, 2016 30814.13 Janelle Jones, “The Racial Wealth Gap,” 2017 31114.14 Black Lives Matter, What We Believe, n.d. 312Index 316