Carbon Nanofibers

Madhuri Sharon, (Retd. Director at Reliance Industries), PhD from Leicester University UK, postdoctoral research from Bolton Institute of Technology U.K., is currently the Director of NSN Research Centre for Nanotechnology & Bionanotechnology and Managing Director of Monad Nanotech as well as Adjunct-Professor University of Mumbai & Professor-Emeritus JJT University, India. She has published more than 130 papers, 4 books and 11 patents. Her research focuses on the synthesis, biosynthesis and application of various nanomaterials (graphene oxide, carbon dots, carbon nanomaterials and nanometals) in drug-delivery. Maheshwar Sharon, (Retd. Professor IIT Bombay) PhD from Leicester University, U.K, and postdoctoral research from Bolton Institute of Technology, U.K., is Director of NSN Research Centre for Nanotechnology & Bionanotechnology and Technical Director of Monad Nanotech as well as Adjunct-Professor at the University of Mumbai, India. His specializations are electrochemistry (photoelectrochemistry & battery), solid state chemistry (diffusion & electrical properties), superconductivity, carbon (fullerenes, nanocarbon, low band gap semiconductor, etc.) and energy: photovoltaic wet & dry solar cells. For his contribution to carbon he was awarded the ‘Bangur Award’. He has five patents, five books and 173 publications to his credit.

• Foreword xixPreface xxi1 An Introduction to Carbon Nanofiber 1Maheshwar Sharon1.1 Introduction 11.1.1 History of Carbon Fiber 21.1.2 What is a Carbon Fiber? 31.1.3 Structures of Carbon Fibers 51.1.4 Synthesis of Carbon Fibers 61.1.4.1 Carbon Fibers from PAN 61.1.5 Properties of Carbon Fibers 61.2 Properties of Carbon Nanofiber and How It Differs from Carbon Nanotube 71.2.1 History of CNF 81.2.2 Role of Surface States in Controlling the Properties of CNFs 91.3 Synthesis of Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) 111.3.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Method 111.3.2 Precursors for CNF 121.3.3 Use of Catalyst in the Synthesis of CNF 121.3.4 Selection of Variable Parameters for Growth of CNF 131.3.5 Epitaxial Growth of Aligned CNF 141.3.6 Mechanism of CNF Synthesis 141.4 Properties of CNF and Its Composites 151.5 Applications of CNF 151.6 Health Hazards of CNF 181.7 Summary 19References 192 Biogenic Carbon Nanofibers 21Madhuri Sharon2.1 Introduction 212.2 Plants as Source of Precursor for CNF Synthesis 222.2.1 Plant Parts 262.2.1.1 Fibrous Plant Material Used for Synthesizing CNF 262.2.1.2 Characterization of CNF Obtained by Pyrolysis of Plant Seeds 292.2.2 Plant Metabolites 342.2.2.1 Characterization of CNF Obtained by Pyrolysis of Plant Metabolites 362.3 CNF Derived from Parts of Different Plants and Their Applications 372.3.1 Hydrogen Storage in CNF 372.3.2 Removal of Heavy Metals by CNF 382.3.3 Microwave Absorption Capacity of CNF 392.3.4 CNF as Electrocatalysts for Microbial Energy Harvesting 402.3.5 CNF as Regenerative Medicine 402.3.6 CNF as Deodorizer 412.3.7 CNF Composites for Strong and Lightweight Material 412.3.8 Biogenic CNF as Supercapacitor 422.3.9 Plant-Derived CNM for Use in Coatings 432.4 Comparative Structure of Chemically and Biogenically Synthesized CNF 432.4.1 CNF Synthesized from Chemical Precursors 432.4.2 CNF Synthesized from Plant Parts or Plant Metabolites as Precursors 442.5 Concluding Remarks 45References 453 Role of Nanocatalysts in Synthesis of Carbon Nanofiber 49Suman Tripathi3.1 Introduction 493.2 Nanocatalysts 503.2.1 Concept of Nanocatalysis 513.2.2 Metallic Nanoparticles (NP) as Catalyst 523.2.3 Types of Nanometals as Catalyst 533.2.3.1 Nanometal Colloids as Catalysts 543.2.3.2 Nanoclusters as Catalysts 543.2.3.3 Nanoparticles as Catalysts 543.2.3.4 Nanopowder as Catalysts 543.3 Methods for the Preparation of Nanoparticles 543.3.1 Hydrothermal Method of Metal Nanoparticles 553.3.2 Microwave-Irradiated Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 553.3.3 Dendrimer-Assisted Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 553.3.4 Reverse Micelle Method of Metal Nanoparticles 563.3.5 Co-Precipitation Method of Metal Nanoparticles 573.3.6 Biogenic Synthesis (Green Synthesis) Method of Metal Nanoparticles 583.4 Role of Nanocatalyst in the Production of CNF 603.5 Different Types of CNF 613.6 Synthesis of Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Using Nanocatalysts 643.6.1 Laser Ablation Method 653.6.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 653.6.3 Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis (SHS) or Combustion Synthesis (CS) 673.6.4 Floating Catalyst Method 683.6.5 Electrospinning Method 683.6.5.1 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 703.6.5.2 Pitch 703.6.5.3 Cellulose 703.7 Summary 71References 714 Carbon Nanofiber and Polymer Conjugate 75Anuradha Pandey Dubey4.1 Introduction 754.2 What is a Composite? 764.3 Polymers Used for Conjugating CNF 794.3.1 Starch 794.3.2 Cellulose 814.3.3 Collagen 814.3.4 Chitosan 824.3.5 Gelatin 834.3.6 Fibrin 834.3.7 Alginate 844.3.8 Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) 844.3.9 Poly Ethylene Glycol (PEG) 844.3.10 Poly Caprolactone (PCL) 854.3.11 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) 854.3.12 Poly Glycerol Sebacate (PGS) 864.4 Approaches Involved in Synthesizing Polymer/CNF Nanocomposites 864.5 Various CNF Composites 874.5.1 CNF/Epoxy Composites 884.5.2 CNF/Phenolic Resin Composites 894.5.3 CNF/Polyaniline (PANI) Composites 894.5.4 CNF/Poly (Ether Ether Ketone) Nanocomposite 904.5.5 CNF/Biopolymers Nanocomposites 904.5.6 CNT/CNF-Epoxy Nanocomposites 914.6 Possible Futuristic Applications of CNF/Polymer Composites 914.6.1 Sensors 924.6.2 Batteries 934.6.3 Food Packaging 944.7 Summary 95References 955 Characterization of Carbon Nanofiber 99Sundeep Deulkar5.1 Introduction 995.2 Microscopic Characterization Techniques 995.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 1005.2.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) 1035.2.3 Electron Microscopy for Morphology and Surface Characterization 1045.2.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 1045.2.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) 1085.3 Spectroscopic Characterization 1125.3.1 Raman Spectroscopic Studies of Carbon Nanofibers 1135.4 Spectroscopic Analysis of CNF by XRD 1175.5 Measurement of Mechanical Properties of CNF 1225.5.1 Tensile Strength Testing/Tension Testing 1225.5.2 Young’s Modulus 1235.6 Optical Property Analysis of CNF 1275.6.1 Ellipsometric Method for CNF and MCNF 1285.6.2 UV-Vis-NIR Spectrophotometric Method for ACNF Analysis 1295.6.3 Measuring Optical Band Gap 1315.7 Thermal Properties and Thermal Effect Analysis 1325.7.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 1325.7.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 1345.7.3 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) 1355.7.4 Thermal Conductivity 1355.8 Specific Surface Area (SSA) Determination of CNF 1395.8.1 Methylene Blue (MB) Test 1405.8.2 Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) Specific Surface Areas 1425.9 Characterization of Electrical Properties 1455.9.1 Two-Probe and Four-Probe Methods for Resistivity Measurement 1485.9.2 Four-Probe Methods for Resistivity Measurement 1495.9.3 Tunneling Atomic Force Microscopy (TUNA) Analysis 1505.9.4 Hall Effect Measurement 152References 1546 Carbon Nanofiber – A Potential Superconductor 159Harish K. Dubey6.1 Introduction 1596.2 Superconductors 1616.2.1 Theory of Superconductors 1616.2.2 Measurement Technique of Superconductivity 1636.2.3 Types of Superconductors 1636.3 History of Existing Superconductors 1656.4 Superconductivity in Organic Materials 1686.5 Can Carbon Nanofiber Also Be a Possible Superconductor? 1696.6 Summary 173References 1737 Carbon Nanofiber for Hydrogen Storage 175Bholanath Mukherjee7.1 Introduction 1757.2 Hydrogen – Its Advantages and Disadvantages as Source of Energy 1767.2.1 Advantages 1777.2.2 Disadvantages 1777.3 Methods of Hydrogen Storage 1787.3.1 Storage of Liquid Hydrogen 1787.3.2 Storage of Gaseous Hydrogen 1787.3.2.1 In Metal Hydride Storage Tanks 1787.3.2.2 Storage of Compressed Hydrogen in High-Pressure Tank 1797.3.2.3 Hydrogen Storage in Glass Microspheres 1797.3.2.4 Storage in Array of Glass Micro Tubules/Capillaries 1807.3.2.5 Storage of Hydrogen in Chemicals 1807.3.2.6 Storage of Hydrogen in Metal Amidoboranes 1807.3.2.7 Storage of Hydrogen in Metal Organic Framework System 1817.4 Different Forms of Carbon and Nanocarbon for Storage of Hydrogen 1817.4.1 Activated Carbon 1827.4.2 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) 1847.4.3 Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs) 1877.4.4 Metal-Doped Carbon Nanotubes 1887.4.5 Graphene and the Like 1897.5 Carbon Fibers for Storage of Hydrogen 1917.6 Pyrolyzed Natural Fibers from Plant/Animals to Store Hydrogen 1927.6.1 Carbonization/Pyrolysis 1927.7 Summary 201References 2018 Carbon Nanofiber for Microwave Absorption 211Dattatray E. Kshirsagar8.1 The Need to Develop a Microwave Absorber 2118.2 Types of Microwave Absorbers 2128.2.1 Resonant Absorber 2138.2.2 Broadband Absorbers 2158.2.3 Magnetic Absorbers 2178.2.4 Dielectric Absorber 2188.2.5 Metal Absorber 2208.3 Considerations for Nano Absorbers 2218.3.1 Nanoferrite Absorber 2228.3.1.1 Limitations of Ferrites 2228.4 The Radars 2238.4.1 Detection and Ranging 2238.4.2 Multi-Band 3D Radar 2238.4.3 Quantum Radar 2248.4.4 LIDAR (Light Imaging Detection & Ranging) 2258.5 Role of CNF in Microwave Absorption 2268.6 Need for Fabricating a CNF and Polymer Composite 2288.7 Summary 230References 2329 Carbon Nanofiber for Removal of Dye from Aqueous Medium 235Sanjukta Bhowmik9.1 Introduction 2359.2 Morphology of Biogenic and Chemically Synthesized CNFs from Different Precursors 2369.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method (CVD) 2379.2.2 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) 2409.2.3 Electrospinning of Polymer Fibers 2419.3 Novel Dye Removal Properties of CNF 2439.4 Absorption of Different Dyes 2459.5 Summary 248References 24910 Carbon Nanofiber to Remove Heavy Metals from Aqueous Medium 251Jayashri Shukla10.1 Introduction 25110.1.1 What Are Heavy Metals? 25110.1.2 List of Heavy Metals 25210.1.3 Sources of Heavy Metals 25210.2 Are Heavy Metals Essential for Living Beings? 25310.2.1 Damaging Effect of Heavy Metals on Biosystem 25310.2.1.1 Arsenic 25410.2.1.2 Cadmium 25410.2.1.3 Chromium 25510.2.1.4 Lead 25610.2.1.5 Mercury 25610.2.2 Heavy Metal and Soil Toxicity 25710.2.3 Heavy Metal and Plant Toxicity 25810.2.4 Toxic Effects of Heavy Metals on Aquatic Environment 25810.3 Methods Used for Removal of Heavy Metals 25810.3.1 Adsorption 25910.3.1.1 Adsorption on New Adsorbents 25910.3.1.2 Adsorption on Modified Natural Materials 25910.3.1.3 Adsorption on Industrial By-Products 26010.3.1.4 Adsorption on Modified Agricultural and Biological Wastes (Biosorption) 26310.3.1.5 Adsorption on Modified Biopolymers and Hydrogels 26310.3.2 Membrane Separation/Filtration 26510.3.3 Electrodialysis and Photocatalysis 26910.3.4 Chemical Oxidation and Advanced Oxidation 26910.3.5 Chemical Precipitation 26910.3.6 Chemical Coagulation 27010.3.7 Chemical Stabilization 27110.3.8 Ion Exchange 27110.3.9 Waste LCD Panel Glass 27110.3.10 Electrolytic Recovery or Electrowinning 27210.3.11 Electrodialysis 27210.3.12 Photocatalysis 27210.4 Evaluation of Heavy Metals Removal Processes 27410.5 Role of CNF in Removing Heavy Metals 27510.5.1 Suitability of Chemically Synthesized CNF for Heavy Metal Removal 27710.5.2 Suitability of Biogenic CNF 27710.6 CNF to Remove Heavy Metals 27910.7 Summary 284References 28411 Carbon Nanofiber as Electrode in Li-Ion Battery 291Manisha Khemani11.1 Introduction 29111.1.1 Why Lithium? 29211.2 Types of Lithium-Ion Batteries 29411.2.1 Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide Battery 29411.2.2 Lithium Cobalt Oxide Battery 29411.2.3 Lithium Manganese Oxide Battery 29411.2.4 Lithium-Titanate Battery 29511.2.5 Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery 29511.3 Theory of Generation of Power in Lithium Battery 29511.3.1 Positive Electrode or Cathode 29511.3.2 Negative Electrode Anode 29611.3.3 Electrolyte 29611.4 Role of Carbon, Lithium and Cobalt in Li-Battery 29711.4.1 Advantages of LIB 30011.4.2 Disadvantages of LIB 30211.5 Role of CNF in Lithium Battery and Possibility of Increasing Its Efficiency 30311.6 Recent Advances in Lithium Battery Utilizing Carbon Nanomaterial and CNF 30511.6.1 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 30611.6.2 Walnut Shell 30611.6.3 FeOx-CNT/CNF Composite 30611.6.4 Carbon Nanobeads (CNB) from Camphor 30611.6.5 Tea Leaves 30711.6.6 Various Carbon Materials 30811.7 Summary 309References 30912 Carbon Nanofiber and Photovoltaic Solar Cell 313Kailash Jagdeo and Maheshwar Sharon12.1 Introduction 31312.2 Formation of a Semiconducting Material 31412.2.1 Introduction to P-N Junction 31612.3 Semiconductors for Solar Cell 32012.4 Attempts Made in Making Carbon-Based Solar Cell 32012.5 Is CNF a Suitable Material for Solar Cell? 32112.6 Summary 327References 32713 Application of Carbon Nanofiber in Antenna 331Mahesh Partapure13.1 Introduction 33113.2 Radiation Types and Characteristics of Antenna 33313.2.1 Radiation Density 33413.2.2 Radiation Pattern 33413.2.3 Directivity 33513.2.4 Gain 33513.2.5 Effective Area 33613.2.6 Input Impedance 33613.2.7 Impedance Matching 33613.2.8 Return Loss and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) 33613.3 Carbon Nanomaterial 33713.4 Application of Carbon Nanofibers in Antenna 33813.5 Summary 339References 34014 Carbon Nanofiber in Cosmetics 341Archana Singh14.1 Introduction 34114.2 What is a Nanocosmetic 34214.3 Cosmetics with Nanoparticles in Today’s Market 34214.4 Nanoparticles Used in Cosmetics 34414.4.1 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) 34414.4.2 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 34614.4.3 Gold Nanoparticles 34814.4.4 Silver Nanoparticles 34914.4.5 Selenium Nanoparticles 35014.5 Nano-Compositions Used for Loading and Delivery of Nanoparticle 35114.5.1 Nanoliposomes 35214.5.2 Solid Liquid Nanoparticles (SLN) 35314.5.3 Cubosomes 35414.5.4 Dendrimers 35514.5.5 Nanocrystals 35614.6 Cosmetics Containing Carbon Nanomaterials 35714.6.1 Nanoforms of Carbon for Cosmetics Used in Ancient India that Still Prevail Today: Herbal Kajal/Kohl 35714.6.2 Carbon-Based Cosmetics 35814.6.3 Contemporary Cosmetics Using Carbon 35814.7 Can Activated Carbon, Carbon Black and Carbon Nanotubes Be Replaced with CNF for Use in Cosmetics? 35914.8 Summary 361References 36215 Carbon Nanofiber in Regenerative Medicine 365Pramod Desai15.1 Introduction 36515.1.1 Tissue Engineering – Concept in a Nutshell 36515.1.2 Why Carbon Nanotubes Are Versatile Scaffolds 36715.2 Cell Tracking and Labeling 36815.2.1 Optical Labeling 36815.2.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Contrast Agent 36915.2.3 Radio Labeling 37015.3 Sensing Cellular Behavior 37115.4 Augmenting Cellular Behavior 37215.5 Carbon Nanotubes as Structural Support for Tissue Engineering 37415.6 Cytotoxicity of Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) 37515.7 Biocompatibility of Carbon Nanofibers 37715.7.1 CNTs with Neuronal Cells 37815.7.2 CNTs with Osteoblast Cell 37915.7.3 CNTs with Antibody Interactions 38015.7.4 Ion Channel Interactions with CNTs 38015.8 Dispersion of Carbon Nanofibers 38015.8.1 Sonication 38015.8.2 Stabilization with Surfactant 38115.8.3 Covalent Functionalization 38115.9 Summary 381References 38216 Carbon Nanofibers and Agro-Technology 389Manisha Sharan and Madhuri Sharon16.1 Introduction 38916.1.1 The Importance of Nanoscale 39016.1.2 Carbon Nanomaterials 39016.2 Carbon Nanofibers 39116.3 Carbon Nanofiber and Agriculture 39116.3.1 CNF for Plant Growth and Crop Yield 39316.3.1.1 Seed Germination 39416.3.1.2 CNF as Fertilizer 39516.3.1.3 CNF as Plant Growth Stimulator 39616.3.2 CNF for Plant Protection 39616.3.2.1 CNF as Antimicrobial and Antifungal for Surface Coating 39616.3.2.2 CNF as Support for Pesticides, Herbicides and Insecticides 39816.3.3 CNF for Soil Improvement 39816.3.4 CNF for Controlled Environment Agriculture 39816.3.5 CNF for Precision Farming 39916.3.5.1 CNF and Nanosensors for Diagnostics in Agriculture 40016.4 Summary 401References 401Index 407