Biopolymer-Based Food Packaging

Santosh Kumar, Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar, Kokrajhar, India.Avik Mukherjee, Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar, Kokrajhar, India. Joydeep Dutta, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.

• List of Contributors xvPreface xix1 An Overview of Natural Biopolymers in Food Packaging 1Santosh Kumar, Indra Bhusan Basumatary, Avik Mukherjee, and Joydeep Dutta1.1 Introduction 11.2 History and Background 41.3 Classification 61.3.1 Polysaccharide-Based Biopolymers 61.3.2 Protein-Based Biopolymers 111.3.3 Lipid-Based Biopolymers 131.3.4 Biopolymers Synthesized from Bio-derived Monomers 141.4 Advantages and Disadvantages 151.5 Properties and Applications 161.6 Conclusion and Perspectives 17References 212 Biopolymers: The Chemistry of Food and Packaging 29Rajib Majumder, Arpita Das, Avik Mukherjee, and Santosh Kumar2.1 Introduction 302.2 Biopolymers, Packaging Surfaces, and the Chemistry of Foods 312.2.1 Biopolymers 312.2.2 Polysaccharide-Based Biopolymers 322.2.2.1 Starch and Derivatives 322.2.2.2 Cellulose and Derivatives 332.2.2.3 Chitin and Derivatives 332.2.2.4 Alginate and Pectin 342.2.2.5 Xanthan Gum 342.2.3 Protein-Based Biopolymers 352.2.3.1 Gelatin 352.2.3.2 Collagen 352.2.3.3 Soy Protein 362.2.3.4 Whey Protein 362.2.4 Aliphatic Polyester-Based Biopolymers 362.3 Properties 372.3.1 Physicochemical Properties 372.3.1.1 Density 422.3.1.2 Crystallinity 422.3.1.3 Melting Temperature (Tm) 432.3.1.4 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) 442.3.1.5 Film-Forming Property 442.3.1.6 Solubility 442.3.1.7 Transparency 452.3.1.8 Thermal Stability 452.3.2 Mechanical Properties 452.3.3 Barrier Properties 462.3.4 Bio-activities 472.3.5 Biodegradability 492.4 Interactions Between Food and Packaging 502.4.1 Migration 502.4.2 Permeation 502.4.3 Sorption 512.5 Surface Properties of Packages and Food 522.5.1 Hydrophilicity and Hydrophobicity 522.5.2 Contact Angle 522.5.3 Wettability 532.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 53References 543 Technologies for Biopolymer-Based Films and Coatings 66Anjali Khuntia, N. Sai Prasanna, and Jayeeta Mitra3.1 Introduction 673.2 Fabrication Techniques for Films 683.2.1 Solvent Casting or Wet Process 683.2.1.1 Film-Forming Solution (FFS) 693.2.1.2 Film Casting or Film Coating 713.2.1.3 Film Drying 713.2.2 Extrusion or Dry Process 713.2.3 Electrohydrodynamic Technique 763.2.4 Comparison and Application of Different Fabrication Techniques 763.3 Coating Methods 763.3.1 Dipping 773.3.2 Brushing 773.3.3 Spraying 773.3.4 Electrospraying 783.3.5 Layer-by-Layer (LBL) Electrostatic Deposition 783.3.6 Vacuum Impregnation (VI) 793.4 Properties 793.4.1 Physical Properties 793.4.1.1 Thickness 793.4.1.2 Density 803.4.2 Water Absorption Capacity and Sorption Analysis 803.4.3 Contact Angle/Wetting Tension 823.4.4 Mechanical Properties 823.4.4.1 Tensile 843.4.4.2 Puncture Tests 853.4.5 Permeability 883.4.5.1 Water Vapor Permeability 883.4.5.2 Gas Permeability 923.4.6 Optical Properties 933.4.7 Rheological Properties 933.4.7.1 Viscosity Tests 943.4.7.2 Melt Index Test 943.4.8 Thermal Properties 953.4.8.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 953.4.8.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis 953.4.8.3 Thermomechanical Analysis 963.4.8.4 Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis 973.5 Applications 983.5.1 Composite Films or Multilayer Packaging 993.5.2 Nanostructured Film 993.5.2.1 Nanocomposite Films 993.5.2.2 Nanolaminated Films 1013.6 Conclusion and Perspectives 101References 1014 Chitosan-Based Films and Coatings 110Gitanjali Gautam, Ruchi Rani, Laxmikant S. Badwaik, and Charu Lata Mahanta4.1 Introduction 1104.2 Sources, Structure, and Properties 1114.2.1 Sources 1114.2.2 Structure 1124.2.3 Properties 1144.3 Isolation, Characterization, and Modifications 1154.3.1 Isolation 1154.3.1.1 Extraction from Crustaceous Shells 1154.3.1.2 Extraction from Fungal Cell Wall and Mushrooms 1164.3.1.3 Extraction from Insect Cuticles 1174.3.1.4 Extraction from Terrestrial Animal Exoskeletons 1184.3.2 Characterization 1194.3.3 Modifications 1194.4 Chitosan-Based Composite Films and Coatings 1234.4.1 Gelatin-Based Edible Films and Coatings 1234.4.2 Protein-Based Edible Films and Coatings 1244.4.3 Starch-Based Edible Films and Coatings 1254.4.4 Alginate-Based Edible Films and Coatings 1254.5 Using Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agent 1264.5.1 Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) 1274.5.2 Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) 1274.5.3 Oregano (Origanum vulgare) 1274.5.4 Clove (Syzygium aromaticum L.) 1284.5.5 Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 1284.6 Antimicrobial Activities 1284.7 Effects on the Quality of Fruits and Vegetables 1304.8 Effects on the Quality of Meat, Fish, and Seafood 1304.9 Conclusion and Perspectives 137References 1385 Starch-Based Edible Films and Coatings 147Priyadarshini, S.R., Srinivasan Krishnamoorthy, J.A. Moses, and C. Anandharamakrishnan5.1 Introduction 1485.2 Source, Structure, and Characteristics of Starch Granules 1485.3 Physicochemical, Rheological, and Functional Properties 1505.4 Chemical and Physical Modifications 1525.4.1 Chemical Modifications 1525.4.1.1 Crosslinking 1525.4.1.2 Grafting 1535.4.1.3 Esterification 1535.4.1.4 Etherification 1535.4.1.5 Oxidization 1535.4.1.6 Cationic Modification 1535.4.1.7 Dual Modification 1545.4.2 Physical Modifications 1545.4.2.1 Pregelatinized Starch 1545.4.2.2 Annealing 1545.4.2.3 Heat Moisture Treatment 1545.4.2.4 Heat Drying 1555.4.2.5 Osmotic Pressure Treatment 1555.2.2.6 Freezing 1555.2.2.7 Thermal Inhibition 1555.4.2.8 Non-Thermal Modifications 1555.5 Starch-Based Bionanocomposite Films and Coatings 1565.6 Characterization 1595.6.1 Film Thickness 1595.6.2 Particle Size Determination 1595.6.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 1595.6.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 1605.6.5 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) 1625.7 Applications 1645.8 Recent Developments and Future Directions 1685.9 Conclusion and Perspectives 169References 1706 Protein-Based Films and Coatings 178Manashi Das Purkayastha and Santosh Kumar6.1 Introduction 1796.2 Types, Structures, and Properties 1806.2.1 Casein 1806.2.2 Whey 1806.2.3 Gluten 1816.2.4 Soy Protein 1826.2.5 Collagen and Gelatin 1826.2.6 Zein 1836.3 Improvement in Physicochemical Properties of Proteins 1836.3.1 Plasticizers 1846.3.2 Physical and Chemical Crosslinking 1856.4 Protein-Based Nanocomposites and Their Various Properties 1876.5 Fabrication Techniques 1926.5.1 Direct Casting 1926.5.2 Coating 1926.5.3 Spread Coating 1936.5.4 Spin Coating 1946.5.5 Spray Coating or Spraying 1946.5.6 Dip Coating or Immersion Coating 1946.5.7 Fluidized-Bed Coating 1956.5.8 Pan Coating or Panning 1956.5.9 Layer-by-Layer Assembly 1956.5.10 Electrospinning 1966.5.11 Extrusion 1966.5.12 Compression Molding 1986.5.13 Lamination 1996.6 Applications 2006.6.1 As Carrier of Antimicrobial Agents 2016.6.2 As Carrier of Antioxidants 2036.6.3 As Carrier of Flavoring Compounds 2046.6.4 As Carrier of Live Microorganisms 2066.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 208References 2097 Microbial Polysaccharides (MPs) in Food Packaging 225C. Shashikumar, Sudip Mitra, and Siddhartha Singha7.1 Introduction 2257.2 Production 2277.3 Extraction and Purification 2307.4 Characterization 2307.4.1 Chemical Structure 2347.4.2 Physicochemical Properties 2397.4.2.1 Xanthan 2397.4.2.2 Scleroglucan 2397.4.2.3 Hyaluronic Acid or Hyaluronan 2397.4.2.4 Xylinan or Acetan 2397.4.2.5 Dextran 2407.4.2.6 Gellan 2417.4.2.7 Curdlan 2427.4.2.8 Bacterial Cellulose 2437.4.2.9 Pullulan 2437.4.2.10 Alginate 2437.4.2.11 Levan 2447.4.2.12 β-Glucan 2447.4.2.13 FucoPol 2447.4.2.14 Kefiran 2457.4.2.15 Polyhydroxyalkanoate 2457.4.3 Film Formability and Properties Relevant for Packaging 2457.5 Strategies for Tailoring MP Structures for Packaging Film or Coat Applications 2497.6 Applications and Their Commercialization Status 2517.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 255References 2568 Polylactic Acid (PLA)-Based Composites in Food Packaging 264M. Sukumar, K. Sudharsan, and Radha Krishnan K.8.1 Introduction 2648.1.1 Production of Lactic Acid 2668.1.2 Properties 2678.1.3 PLA Composites as Food Packaging Materials 2698.2 Isolation and Purification 2728.3 PLA-Based Antimicrobial Nanocomposites 2748.4 Applications 2768.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 277References 2789 Antimicrobial Agents in Films and Coatings 282Yashaswini Premjit, Gulshan Kumar Malik, and Jayeeta Mitra9.1 Introduction 2839.2 Classification 2849.2.1 Natural Antimicrobials 2849.2.1.1 Plant-Based Antimicrobials 2909.2.1.2 Microbial-Based Antimicrobials 2919.2.1.3 Animal-Based Antimicrobials 2929.2.2 Chemical Antimicrobials 2939.2.2.1 Nitrites 2939.2.2.2 Chlorine Dioxide 2939.2.3 Antimicrobial Nanostructures 2949.2.3.1 Nanocarriers for Antimicrobials 2949.2.3.2 Silver Nanoparticles 2949.2.3.3 Chitosan Nanostructures 2949.2.3.4 Nanoclays 2949.2.3.5 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 2959.3 Choice of Materials 2959.4 Methods of Addition 2999.4.1 Antimicrobial Edible Coatings 2999.4.2 Antimicrobial Films 3039.4.3 Antimicrobial Pads 3059.4.4 Antimicrobial Sachets 3069.4.5 Modified Atmospheric Packaging 3079.5 Effect on Packaging Film Properties 3089.5.1 Effect on Mechanical Properties 3089.5.2 Effect on Barrier Properties 3109.5.3 Effect on Appearance, Color, and Transparency 3109.5.4 Effect on Surface Hydrophilicity/Hydrophobicity of Films 3139.6 Mechanisms of Action 3139.6.1 Essential Oils 3139.6.2 Organic Acids 3149.6.3 Animal-Based Antimicrobials 3149.6.4 Antimicrobial Peptides 3159.6.5 Antimicrobial Nanoparticles 3159.6.5.1 TiO2 3159.6.5.2 ZnO 3169.6.5.3 Ag NPs 3169.7 Release Kinetics from Packaging Systems to Food 3179.8 Food Regulations 3199.9 Commercialization 3209.10 Conclusion and Perspectives 320References 32210 Nanomaterials in Food Packaging 336Santosh Kumar, Avik Mukherjee, Sweety Kalita, Namrata Singh, Vimal Katiyar Atanu Mitra, and Dipankar Halder10.1 Introduction 33610.2 Nanomaterials and Food Packaging Concepts 33710.3 Applications 33910.3.1 Supplementing Packaging Characteristics 33910.3.1.1 Nanoclay 34210.3.1.2 Graphene 34510.3.1.3 Organic Nanofillers 34510.3.2 Antimicrobial Packaging 34610.3.3 Extending Shelf-Life of Food 34710.3.4 Inducing Smartness/Intelligence 35110.4 Migration to Packaged Food Items 35310.5 Environmental and Safety Aspects 35410.5.1 Impact on Human Health and the Environment 35410.5.2 Regulations on Use in the Food Sector 35610.6 Conclusion and Perspectives 357References 35811 Silver and Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in Films and Coatings 368Abhishek Roy, K. Dharmalingam, and R. Anandalakshmi11.1 Introduction 36811.2 Antimicrobial Properties 36911.3 Biopolymer-Based Silver Nanocomposites 37511.4 ZnO Nanostructures in Biopolymers 37711.5 Applications of Silver Bionanocomposites 37911.6 Applications of ZnO Bionanocomposites 38311.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 384References 38512 Plant-Based Active Compounds in Food Packaging 394N. Arul Manikandan, Kannan Pakshirajan, and G. Pugazhenthi12.1 Introduction 39412.2 Plant-Based Active Compounds 39612.2.1 Simple Phenolic Compounds 39612.2.2 Flavones, Flavanols, and Flavonoids 39612.2.3 Quinones 39612.2.4 Tannins 39712.2.5 Coumarins 39812.2.6 Alkaloids 39812.2.7 Terpenes 39812.3 Active Components to Control Microbial Spoilage 39812.3.1 Turmeric 40512.3.2 Cinnamon 40512.3.3 Lemongrass 40512.3.4 Neem 40612.3.5 Coriander 40612.3.6 Garlic 40612.3.7 Rosemary 40612.3.8 Grapefruit Seed 40712.3.9 Aloe Vera 40712.3.10 Oregano 40712.4 Active Materials to Control Food Oxidation (Food Antioxidants) 40812.4.1 Quercetin 40812.4.2 Carnosic Acid 40912.4.3 Ellagic Acid 41012.4.4 Ferulic Acid 41012.4.5 α-Tocopherol 41112.5 Polymer-Based Composites 41112.6 Conclusion and Perspectives 415References 41513 Essential Oils in Active Films and Coatings 422K. Dharmalingam, Abhishek Roy, and R. Anandalakshmi13.1 Introduction 42213.2 Classifications and Components 42313.3 Properties and Characteristics 42413.4 Encapsulation 42513.5 Biopolymer-Essential Oil Composites 42813.6 Applications 43213.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 438References 43914 Edible Films and Coatings 445Indra Bhusan Basumatary, Sweety Kalita, Vimal Katiyar, Avik Mukherjee, and Santosh Kumar14.1 Introduction 44514.2 Biopolymers 44714.2.1 Polysaccharides 44714.2.2 Proteins 44814.2.3 Lipids 45014.3 Natural Active Components 45014.3.1 Plant Extracts 45014.3.2 Antimicrobial Peptides 45214.3.3 Probiotics 45314.4 Nanomaterials 45314.4.1 Inorganic Nanomaterials 45314.4.2 Organic Nanomaterials 45514.5 Extending Shelf-Life of Food 45614.5.1 Fruits and Vegetables 45614.5.2 Meat, Poultry, and Fish 45914.5.3 Milk and Dairy Products 46014.6 Conclusion and Perspectives 460References 465Index 476