Bio-pigmentation and Biotechnological Implementations

Om V. Singh, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Pittsburgh, Bradford, PA, USA. Dr. Singh's work in the field of microbiology and proteomics has focused on topics in environmental microbiology, bioenergy, stress proteins, and diversity of extremophiles, all areas in which he has published extensively over the decade.

• List of Contributors xvIntroduction xvii1 Introduction of Natural Pigments From Microorganisms 1Siyuan Wang, Fuchao Xu, and Jixun Zhan1.1 Introduction 11.2 Microbial Pigments from Eukaryotic Sources 21.2.1 Pigments from Algae 21.2.2 Pigments from Fungi 41.2.3 Pigments from Yeasts 71.3 Natural Pigments from Prokaryotes 91.3.1 Natural Pigments from Cyanobacteria 91.3.2 Natural Pigments from Bacteria 101.4 Conclusion 16References 162 Establishing Novel Cell Factories Producing Natural Pigments In Europe 23Gerit Tolborg, Thomas Isbrandt, Thomas Ostenfeld Larsen, and Mhairi Workman2.1 Introduction 232.2 Colorants 252.2.1 Classification of Colorants 252.2.2 Monascus Pigments 262.2.3 Biosynthesis of Monascus Pigments 292.2.4 Derivatives of Monascus Pigments 312.3 Screening for Monascus Pigment-Producing Cell Factories for the European Market 322.3.1 Cell Factory Selection and Identification 322.3.2 From Single Pigment Producers to High-Performance Cell Factories 332.4 Assessment of the Color Yield 342.4.1 Pigment Purification and Quantification 342.4.2 Detection and Identification 372.4.3 Quantification 382.4.4 CIELAB 412.5 Optimizing Cellular Performance: Growth and Pigment Production 412.5.1 Assessment of Classical Physiological Parameters 422.5.2 Media Composition 422.5.3 Cultivation Parameters 442.5.4 Type of Cultivation 462.5.5 Metabolic Engineering 482.6 Pigment Properties 502.7 Conclusion 51References 513 Color-Producing Extremophiles 61Eva García-López, Alberto Alcázar, Ana María Moreno, and Cristina Cid3.1 Introduction 613.2 Color-Producing Extremophiles 623.2.1 Thermophiles and Hyperthermophiles 633.2.2 Psychrophiles and Psychrotolerants 633.2.3 Alkaliphiles 663.2.4 Acidophiles 663.2.5 Piezophiles and Piezotolerants 663.2.6 Halophiles and Halotolerants 673.2.7 Radiophiles 673.3 Microbial Pigments 683.3.1 Chlorophylls and Bacteriochlorophylls 683.3.2 Carotenoids and Phycobilins 693.3.3 Violacein 703.3.4 Prodigiosin 703.3.5 Pyocyanin 703.3.6 Azaphilones 703.3.7 Bacteriorhodopsin 713.3.8 Cytochromes 713.3.9 Other 723.4 Biotechnological Applications of Microbial Pigments from Extremophiles 733.4.1 Applications in the Food Industry 743.4.2 Applications in the Pharmaceutical Industry 773.4.3 Applications in the Textile Industry 783.4.4 Applications as Laboratory Tools 783.4.5 Applications in Bioremediation 793.4.6 Development of Microbial Fuel Cells 793.4.7 Biotechnological Production of Natural Pigments 803.5 Conclusion 80Acknowledgments 80References 804 Current Carotenoid Production Using Microorganisms 87Laurent Dufossé4.1 Introduction 874.2 β-carotene 884.2.1 B. trispora 884.2.2 Phycomyces blakesleeanus 904.2.3 Mucor circinelloides 914.2.4 Applications 914.3 Lycopene 914.3.1 B. trispora 924.3.2 Fusarium sporotrichioides 934.4 Astaxanthin 934.4.1 X. dendrorhous, Formerly Phaffia rhodozyma 944.4.2 Agrobacterium aurantiacum and Other Bacteria 954.4.3 Advantages over Other Carotenoids 954.4.4 Astaxanthin for Salmon and Trout Feeds 964.4.5 Astaxanthin for Humans 974.5 Zeaxanthin 974.6 Canthaxanthin 984.7 Torulene and Thorularhodin 994.8 Prospects for Carotenoid Production by Genetically Modified Microorganisms 994.8.1 Escherichia coli and Other Hosts 994.8.2 Directed Evolution and Combinatorial Biosynthesis 1014.9 Conclusion 102References 1045 C50 Carotenoids: Occurrence, Biosynthesis, Glycosylation, and Metabolic Engineering For Their Overproduction 107Nadja A. Henke, Petra Peters-Wendisch, Volker F. Wendisch, and Sabine A.E. Heider5.1 Introduction 1075.2 Occurrence and Biological Function of C50 Carotenoids 1085.3 Biosynthesis of C50 Carotenoids 1105.4 Glycosylation of C50 Carotenoids 1145.5 Overproduction of C50 Carotenoids by Metabolic Engineering 1155.6 Conclusion 118Acknowledgments 119References 1196 Biopigments and Microbial Biosynthesis of 𝛃-Carotenoids 127Rosemary C. Nwabuogu, Jennifer Lau, and Om V. Singh6.1 Introduction 1276.2 Characterization of Biological Pigments 1296.2.1 Tetrapyrrole Derivatives 1296.2.2 N-heterocyclic Derivatives 1306.2.3 Isoprenoid Derivatives 1316.2.4 Benzopran Derivatives 1326.2.5 Quinones 1326.2.6 Melanins 1336.3 Biosynthetic Routes of β-carotene 1336.3.1 Fermentation of β-carotene 1386.4 Molecular Regulation of β-carotene Biosynthesis 1466.5 Commercialization of β-carotene 1476.6 Conclusion 151References 1517 Biotechnological Production of Melanins With Microorganisms 161Guillermo Gosset7.1 Introduction 1617.2 Microbial Production of Melanins 1637.3 Production of Melanins with Engineered Microorganisms 1657.4 Conclusion 169References 1708 Biochemistry and Molecular Mechanisms of Monascus Pigments 173Changlu Wang, Di Chen, and Jiancheng Qi8.1 Introduction 1738.2 Monascus Pigments 1748.3 The Properties of Monascus Pigments 1768.3.1 Solubility 1768.3.2 Stability 1778.3.3 Safety 1778.4 Functional Properties of Monascus Pigments 1778.4.1 Antimicrobial Activities 1788.4.2 Anti-inflammatory Activities 1788.4.3 Anti-obesity Activities 1788.4.4 Anticancer Activities 1788.5 Biosynthetic Pathway of Monascus Pigments 1798.6 Biosynthetic Pathway of Related Genes 1818.7 Factors Affecting Monascus Pigment Production 1848.7.1 Solid-State Fermentation 1858.7.2 Submerged Fermentation 1868.7.3 Carbon Source 1868.7.4 Nitrogen Source 1878.7.5 Temperature 1878.7.6 Light 187References 1879 Diversity and Applications of Versatile Pigments Produced By Monascus Sp 193Sunil H. Koli, Rahul K. Suryawanshi, Chandrashekhar D. Patil, and Satish V. Patil9.1 Introduction 1939.2 Pigment-Producing Monascus Strains 1959.3 Various Types of Monascus Pigments 1999.4 Extraction and Purification of Monascus Pigments 2039.5 Detection and Purification 2049.5.1 UV-Vis Spectrophotometric Methods 2049.5.2 Column Chromatography 2049.5.3 Thin-Layer Chromatography 2059.5.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 2059.6 Applications 2069.6.1 Food Colorants 2069.6.2 Biological Role 2069.7 Conclusion 209Acknowledgments 209References 20910 Microbial Pigment Production Utilizing Agro-Industrial Waste and Its Applications 215Chidambaram Kulandaisamy Venil, Nur Zulaikha Binti Yusof, Claira Arul Aruldass, and Wan Azlina Ahmad10.1 Introduction 21510.2 Agro-industrial Waste Generation: A Scenario 21610.3 Microbial Pigments 21610.4 Production of Microbial Pigments Utilizing Agro-industrial Waste from Different Industries 22310.5 Case Study: Production of Violacein by Chromobacterium violaceum Grown in Agricultural Wastes 22510.5.1 Introduction 22510.5.2 Materials and Methods 22610.5.3 Results and Discussion 22910.6 Conclusion 235Acknowledgments 235References 23511 Microbial Pigments: Potential Functions and Prospects 241P. Akilandeswari and B.V. Pradeep11.1 Introduction 24111.1.1 Pigments 24211.1.2 Types of Pigments 24211.1.3 Microbial Pigments 24211.1.4 Use of Pigments 24311.1.5 Advantages of Natural Pigments 24311.1.6 Disadvantages of Synthetic Dyes 24311.2 Potential Sources of Microbial Pigments 24411.2.1 Actinomycetes 24411.2.2 Bacteria 24511.2.3 Fungi 24511.3 Physical Factors Influencing Microbial Pigments 24611.4 Chemical Factors Influencing Microbial Pigments 24711.5 Fermentation Practices in Pigment Production 24811.5.1 Solid-State Fermentation 24811.5.2 Submerged Fermentation 24811.6 Characterization and Purification Analysis 24911.7 Biocolors from Microbes and their Potential Functions 25011.7.1 Pharmaceutical Industry 25011.7.2 Food Colorants 25511.7.3 Textile Dyeing 256References 25712 The Microbial World of Biocolor Production 263Roshan Gul, Raman Kumar, and Anil K. Sharma12.1 Introduction 26312.2 Pigments Produced by Microorganisms 26512.3 Classification of Pigments 26512.3.1 Riboflavin 26512.3.2 β-carotene 26512.3.3 Canthaxanthin 26812.3.4 Carotenoids 26812.3.5 Prodigiosin 26812.3.6 Phycocyanin 26812.3.7 Violacein 26812.3.8 Astaxanthin 26812.4 Benefits and Applications of Microbial Pigments 26912.5 Conclusion 272References 273Index 279